England towns but also to the war's devastating impact. As men left to seek better opportunities, many families fell into poverty, leaving women to raise their children alone. By the late 1880s, a new female consciousness emerged, asserting that a woman's role extended beyond the home.

The role of women writers also evolved rapidly during the late nineteenth century. Freeman and her peers were part of the so-called second generation of women writers. The first generation, featuring novelists like Catharine Sedgwick and Augusta Evans, dominated the U.S. literary scene from around 1820 to 1870. Their works typically fell under sentimental or domestic genres, often concluding with the heroine's marriage or death.

Freeman, however, belonged to a new literary movement known as realism. She and her contemporaries wrote in response to the earlier romantic works, aiming for stories that more accurately portrayed the lives of real women. These writers often questioned whether marriage was truly satisfying or fulfilling, presenting the single life as a valid and sometimes preferable alternative.

A key feature of this emerging realistic style was known as "local color." It referred to realistic fiction that focused on regional specifics, genuine character portrayals, and the accurate use of native dialects. This term first appeared in a review published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1864. Before long, rival magazines also began to adopt realistic and local color stories. This trend created numerous new opportunities for young writers, like Freeman, who were keen to write about what they knew best—their own regions and their distinctive residents.

In medias res

‘‘The Revolt of ‘Mother’’’ starts inmedias res, which means ‘‘in the middle of things.’’ Here, it begins with a conversation between a husband and wife who have been married for many years. This dialogue reflects back to forty years ago when Adoniram promised Sarah a new house on their wedding day. Readers quickly learn about the current situation—there is still no new house, but workers are preparing the ground for a fresh barn. The Penns now have a daughter who is engaged and desires a more impressive home for her wedding.

‘‘The Revolt of ‘Mother’’’ was initially crafted as a piece of magazine fiction, and the use of in media res effectively captures the reader's interest from the start. The intriguing title also serves to draw readers in immediately, hinting at an unexpected ‘‘revolt’’ that contrasts with the characters' behavior at the story's outset.

Point of View and Narration

‘‘The Revolt of ‘Mother’’’ is told from a third-person omniscient perspective, enabling the narrator to reveal the thoughts and feelings of any or all characters. However, the story mainly focuses on Sarah Penn and her internal struggle to do what she believes is right. The narrator seldom directly conveys what a character sees or feels. Instead, the story is mostly narrated from a detached, objective viewpoint, offering more information to the reader. This approach is used effectively to paint a comprehensive picture of Sarah’s life—her relationship with her husband, her wish to support her daughter, the lives and concerns of her fellow villagers, and the social norms of the late 19th-century New England community.

The impartial narrator wields strong authority in telling the story, and the objective tone encourages readers to accept the narrator's views. For example, to highlight the persuasiveness of Sarah's arguments for a new house to Adoniram, the narrator refers to her as ‘‘a Webster,’’ alluding to the famous and influential orator Daniel Webster. Since the narrator has shown knowledge about other matters, readers are more inclined to trust the narrator’s interpretation. The narrator also seldom explores the characters’ inner thoughts, so when such thoughts are revealed, like Adoniram’s view of his wife as ‘‘immovable’’ or the children’s feeling of being ‘‘overawed,’’ these character insights stand out to the reader.

Setting

"The Revolt of 'Mother'" unfolds in a rural New England farming village. This setting is significant because it is removed from the urban areas where reforms and modernizations occur. It plays a crucial role in the story as Sarah faces a dual conflict: one with her husband and another with the community. The townspeople symbolize societal norms, and when Sarah relocates her household to the barn, they are shocked. Her rebellious spirit is so disconcerting to them that some question her sanity, while others label her as "lawless and rebellious," though even the minister struggles to identify which law she might be breaking. Hence, the New England village serves as both a physical setting and a representation of a mindset.

Symbolism

"The Revolt of 'Mother'" draws much of its power from the unfolding events and Sarah's strong personality, yet it also employs various symbols. The barn is crucial to Adoniram's self-concept; it signifies his success as a farmer. The new barn symbolizes Adoniram's ability to generate wealth, and his choice to build it instead of a better home for his family highlights his focus on accumulating money for its own sake, rather than the comforts it could provide.

Symbolism also emphasizes the characters' gender roles. Adoniram's dominance over household decisions is evident from the beginning of the story. As Sarah questions him about the construction, he roughly harnesses his mare, indicating his harsh treatment of those around him. Despite having no reason to expect the new house she was promised, Sarah does not respond with anger. She continues her sewing, cooking, and cleaning with the meticulous care that has defined her actions throughout the forty years in her small, unadorned home. Her attention to detail and tidiness, reflected in the timely, delicious meals she prepares, will extend to her management of the spacious barn.

1880s: By the close of the 1880s, approximately one-third of the U.S. population resided in towns. Between 1880 and 1890, the number of U.S. cities with populations ranging from 45,000 to 75,000 grew from 23 to 39.

1990s: During the 1990s, the majority of Americans—over 75 percent—were living in urban areas. More than half of the population lived in cities with at least one million residents. In 1990, all of the 100 largest cities in the U.S. had populations exceeding 170,000.

1880s: The United States had around 800 high schools in 1880, and this number increased to 2,500 by 1890.

1990s: By the 1990s, there were over 30,000 public and private high schools across the United States.

1890s: In 1890, Wyoming became the first government in the world and the only U.S. state to grant women full voting rights. That same year, two major women's suffrage groups—the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association—merged to create the National American Woman Suffrage Association.

1990s: By the 1990s, all women in the U.S. had the right to vote, while women in some nations still did not. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro became the first woman to run for vice president on a major party ticket.

1900: In 1900, only 21 percent of women in the United States were employed outside the home.

1990s: By the mid-1990s, about 55 percent of American women were working outside the home. Women represented nearly half of the overall workforce, yet they made up only about 20 percent of professionals in fields such as medicine, business, and law.

Sources

Cutter, Martha. ‘‘Frontier of Language: Engendering Discourse in ‘‘The Revolt of ‘Mother’,’’ in American Literature, Vol. 63, No. 2, 1991, pp. 279-91.

Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins. ‘‘Who’s Who—and Why: Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, an Autobiography,’’ in The Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 190, No. 23, December 8, 1917, pp. 25, 75.

Marchalonis, Shirley, editor. An Introduction to Critical Essays on Mary Wilkins Freeman, G.K. Hall & Co., 1991.

Meese, Elizabeth. ‘‘Signs of Undecidability: Reconsidering the Stories of Mary Wilkins Freeman,’’ in Critical Essays on Mary Wilkins Freeman, edited by Shirley Marchalonis, G.K. Hall & Co., 1991.

Reviews of A New England Nun, and Other Stories, in Critical Essays on Mary Wilkins Freeman, edited by Shirley Marchalonis, G.K. Hall & Co., 1991.

Reichardt, Mary R. A Web of Relationship: Women in the Short Stories of Mary Wilkins Freeman, University Press of Mississippi, 1992.

Tutwiler, Julia R. ‘‘Two New England Writers—In Relation to Their Art and to Each Other,’’ in Critical Essays on Mary Wilkins Freeman, edited by Shirley Marchalonis, G.K. Hall & Co., 1991.

Westbrook, Perry D. Mary Wilkins Freeman, G.K. Hall & Co., 1988.

Further Reading

Glaser, Leah Blatt. In a Closet Hidden: The Life and Work of Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, University of Massachusetts Press, 1996. A comprehensive biography of Freeman, along with an assessment of her significant works.