subtly, the dissonance between Stevens’ pride in working for one of the great houses of England and his unwilling realization that his beloved master was embarrassingly, even criminally, flawed in the eyes of the world becomes apparent.

Lord Darlington, like Stevens himself, suffers the consequences of an outdated sense of chivalry and duty. Appalled by the harsh reparations demanded of the Germans after World War I, he gathers the most influential politicians and diplomats of the day to persuade them to be more lenient. He remarks to Stevens after his first visit to Berlin in 1920, “Disturbing, Stevens. Deeply disturbing. It does us great discredit to treat a defeated foe like this. A complete break with the traditions of this country.” Caught up in his idealistic fervor to behave decently, the nobleman becomes the pawn of clever German agents who are sent to dupe the English aristocracy into believing that Adolf Hitler means well. Finally, Stevens reveals, Lord Darlington was completely ruined when he sued a newspaper for libelous accusations of his collaboration with the Nazis.

What becomes clear to the reader and eventually to the narrator himself is that Lord Darlington’s ruin indirectly makes a mockery of Stevens’ years of personal sacrifice and devotion. The saddest incidents in the novel are the occasions when Stevens, abiding by his own definition of professional dignity as inhabiting his role at all costs, continues to serve his employer’s guests while his father lies dying and the times when he suppresses his natural, loving instincts toward Miss Kenton in order to carry out his duties.

Equally clear to the reader is the subtext of the novel, the moral complicity of those seemingly innocent people who allowed Hitler to reign so long in the name of various well-intentioned human qualities—duty, loyalty, patriotism, peace, and so on. Stevens, who never considered it his duty to know about politics, eventually sums up the dilemma of his own life simply and devastatingly. Lord Darlington, he says, was not a bad man; he was even courageous, and he was at least able to make his own mistakes:He chose a certain path in life, it proved to be a misguided one, but there, he chose it, he can say that at least. As for myself, I cannot even claim that. You see, I trusted. I trusted in his lordship’s wisdom. All those years I served him, I trusted I was doing something worthwhile. I can’t even say I made my own mistakes. Really—one has to ask oneself—what dignity is there in that?

For Stevens, the key word is “dignity,” that defining characteristic of the great butler he has striven to be. He is much taken aback when a villager at one of his stops passionately declares that dignity is about being born free to hold and express opinions and to exercise the right to vote on those opinions, for this is something Stevens has never considered in his own life.

In a brief interview published in The New York Review of Books, Ishiguro remarks that his interest in elderly characters is a way of reminding himself and his generation that they too might find in their old age that their youthful complacency was misguided. Beyond combating such smugness, Ishiguro notes, he is interested not in the mistakes that his fictional characters have made but in the way they come to terms with what they regret. There is a need for honesty and a need to deceive oneself in order “to preserve a sense of dignity, some sort of self-respect.”

In The Remains of the Day, the framing device is completed when Stevens, having come through the dark night of his soul, forgives himself his wasted past in the only way he knows: by committing himself wholeheartedly to his new employer. Bantering, he reflects, may not be such a foolish thing to indulge in—particularly if it is the case that in bantering lies the key to human warmth.” Realizing too late that his dignity lost him the love of Miss Kenton, he resolves to try harder to acquire this new key to life, so as to surprise Mr. Farraday.

A remarkable aspect of Ishiguro’s talent in this novel is his ability to raise profoundly disturbing questions while re- creating the details of a dedicated English butler’s life at a specific point in history. Just as Herman Melville, to many readers’ dismay but to the delight of others, re-created in haunting detail the life aboard a whaling ship in Moby Dick, making each menial act reverberate with significance, so does Ishiguro re-create the profession of butlering. Much of the re-creation, told in the deadpan serious tone of Jeeves, that other great butler in English literature, is comic: the quasi- academic narrative voice, describing the definition of a great butler in The Quarterly for the Gentleman’s Gentleman; the controversy over the narrow definition established by a powerful and prestigious butlers’ club; the identification of generational shifts in defining the duties of a butler; the competition to have the most highly polished silver among the great houses.

It seems purely comic that Stevens remembers the occasion when a nervous cabinet minister waiting for an important meeting to start at Darlington Hall could not be soothed until he caught sight of the beautifully polished silver. Stevens is thrilled that he was able to do his small part to ease the tension of an international event, and the reader too is momentarily amused until it becomes clear that the meeting was with the German ambassador and was later considered treacherous. With such a dual perspective does Ishiguro give the reader a novel simultaneously so comic and tragic. It may only be a coincidence that The Remains of the Day, selected by The New York Times Book Review as one of the Best Books of 1989 and winner of the prestigious Booker Prize in England, is receiving public acclaim at roughly the same time as the film Driving Miss Daisy (1989), adapted from Alfred Uhry’s 1985 Broadway play of the same title. Driving Miss Daisy centers on the relationship between a Southern Jewish matron and her black chauffeur, spanning the years of the Civil Rights movement in the United States. In both works, it is the relationship between servant and master that is detailed, subsuming without elaboration the major social issues of the day. Such personally intense relationships as these master/servant pairings that blend the private and the professional are relatively rare in Western culture; given that fact, this coincidental pairing of two views of the past may well be a reminder that our “enlightened” present may be equally harshly judged when it becomes history.

The 1919 Treaty of Versailles
World War I concluded in 1918, and the victorious nations convened at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to decide Germany's fate. The Conference saw the participation of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, Italian Foreign Minister Giorgio Sonnino, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow Wilson. Germany, held responsible for the war, was compelled to pay reparations and disband its military. Additionally, Germany had to relinquish its colonies and most of its trade infrastructure, including trains and merchant ships.

The Treaty of Versailles proved unsustainable; its harsh terms thwarted hopes for lasting peace by hindering Germany’s recovery and reintegration into the European community. While the leaders of the victorious nations generally supported the treaty, some individuals and groups believed Germany was being treated too severely. As fascism gained traction in Europe during the 1920s, many sympathized with its proclaimed objectives. Postwar Germany adopted a democratic constitution, but a form of militaristic totalitarianism gradually emerged, promising to better meet the people's needs and protect them from communism. Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922, but it wasn't until 1933 that Hitler became Germany’s chancellor.

The 1956 Suez Crisis
The Suez Canal, an artificial waterway in northeastern Egypt, serves as a crucial shortcut for trade among Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. In 1854, a French diplomat founded the Universal Company of the Maritime Suez Canal, which constructed and maintained the canal with the help of Egyptian officials. The company was granted the authority to build the canal, with ownership transferring to Egypt after ninety-nine years.

Initially, the company was a privately owned Egyptian entity, with stock held by Egypt and France. However, in 1875, Great Britain purchased Egypt’s shares due to the canal's significance to its naval power and colonization plans. In 1936, an agreement allowed Britain to station defense forces in the canal area, effectively granting them control over the passageway. As British control over the canal intensified, Egyptian nationalists began to demand Britain's withdrawal. In 1954, Britain and Egypt signed a seven-year agreement for the gradual removal of British military presence. By June 1956, British troops had left, and Egyptian forces took their place.

However, in July, the United States and Great Britain retracted their promises to finance the construction of the Aswan High Dam, citing Egypt's growing ties with Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union as the reason. In response, Egyptian officials seized the Suez Canal to redirect its revenue towards the dam project. This loss of income significantly impacted Britain, contributing to the decline of its colonial influence.

First-Person NarrationThe Remains of the Day primarily derives its style from Stevens's voice, whose memories shape the novel’s narrative. The entire story is a recounting of his past and present, offering readers a clear sense of his personality. Stevens’s manner is formal, polite, and verbose. He tends to be meticulous in his communication, frequently overanalyzes situations, and often shares his every thought. For instance, instead of simply stating that Mr. Farraday’s casual banter makes him uneasy, Stevens elaborates with numerous reasons why he cannot engage in such mannerisms with his employer, speculates on Mr. Farraday’s opinion of him, and concludes that his inability to banter is a shortcoming in his professional duties. This concern recurs throughout his narrative.

As Stevens recounts past events, he consistently highlights his admiration for Lord Darlington, revealing himself as an unreliable narrator. Beyond his reluctance to critically evaluate Lord Darlington, his recollections of the past contain discrepancies. For instance, he attributes the same quote about his father to both Miss Kenton and Lord Darlington: “These errors may be trivial in themselves, Mr. Stevens, but you must yourself realize their larger significance.” On a deeper level, Stevens’s unreliability stems from his underdeveloped sense of self, leading him to perceive life through what he believes is expected of him.

Since the reader is limited to Stevens’s perspective and memories, it is impossible to know what Lord Darlington, Miss Kenton, Stevens’s father, or Mr. Farraday truly experienced. As readers become more familiar with Stevens, they can better interpret the words and actions of others, even though Stevens himself often misinterprets them. Nonetheless, the narrative remains confined to Stevens’s viewpoint. This underscores that The Remains of the Day is largely a character study of Stevens; Ishiguro’s intentions do not necessitate including other characters’ perspectives.

Tragedy and Comedy
The novel’s realism is partly due to its blend of both tragic and comic elements. This mixture makes the story feel more genuine and less contrived, presenting an authentic portrayal of a man's life. Readers find humor in Stevens’s rigid demeanor when faced with unusual situations. For instance, Lord Darlington asks Stevens to explain the “facts of life” to his godson while preparing for a house full of important international guests. Even without the added pressure of the guests, Stevens would struggle to have such a candid and heartfelt conversation with a near stranger. The added distractions of guest preparations enhance the comedic effect. Stevens attempts to get the boy alone but ends up talking about the virtues of nature, completely missing the point. The young man remains clueless about Stevens's intentions, and due to constant interruptions, Stevens never successfully conveys the intended message. Another source of comedy is Stevens’s obsession with his American employer’s love of banter. Despite his discomfort with this type of conversation, Stevens makes a feeble attempt at wit, leaving the reader feeling as embarrassed for him as he is for himself.

Simultaneously, the novel includes tragic moments, such as the death of Stevens’s father. Stevens continues his domestic duties even after receiving the news, highlighting his prioritization of duty above all else. This is tragic because it suggests that Stevens is so detached from his emotions due to his occupation that he does not react as most people would to the death of a loved one. His commitment to his job has rendered him emotionally numb. The fact that Stevens sacrifices personal fulfillment, relationships, and the possibility of love for the sake of duty is inherently tragic. In the end, he regrets much of his past, but by then, he is in his sixties and has lost many precious years.

Ishiguro utilizes parallel narratives in his first two novels. A present-tense storyline frames and contextualizes the memories that form the past-tense narrative. Both story arcs reach their climax at the novel's conclusion. Lord Darlington's major peace conference, marking the peak of Stevens's professional life, and Miss Kenton's revelation of her marriage proposal, unbeknownst to him as the turning point of his personal life, occur concurrently and signify the high point of the past-tense recollections. The climax of the present-day narrative is marked by Stevens's meeting with Mrs. Benn and his realization of his feelings for her.

In The Remains of the Day, Ishiguro masterfully employs the unreliable narrator. The narrative shaped by Stevens's gradually evolving perceptions culminates in the revelation that the dignity with which he has told his story and lived his life has been a facade, bringing unity to the book. The narration further illustrates human memory's subjectivity, as Stevens not only revises his overall understanding of events but also makes minor corrections, such as attributing a statement to Miss Kenton instead of Lord Darlington. This subjectivity and the unreliability of both his narrative and memory are psychologically plausible, making reading the novel akin to an extended, intimate experience with another person's mind.

1920s: Aristocrats typically reside on large family estates, employing numerous house staff, including butlers, housekeepers, gardeners, cooks, and nannies. Wealth and social standing drive the competition to hire the finest servants in England.

1950s: The tradition of maintaining extensive house staff is diminishing. Some aristocrats and affluent foreigners with residences in England retain a modest number of domestic workers.

Today: The era of extensive house staff is largely over, except for the extremely wealthy and royalty. Modern lifestyles and conveniences have made it easier to manage households with minimal domestic help. Housecleaners and gardeners now often work for multiple employers and live independently.

1920s: The impact of World War I has made England keen to prevent another large-scale conflict. Consequently, England plays a leading role in the League of Nations and disarmament conferences aimed at maintaining global peace. Despite this, many English people sympathize with Germany due to its harsh treatment at the 1919 peace conference. As political tensions rise in Europe, numerous English individuals support Germany.

1950s: Post-World War II, public opinion in England is strongly against Germany. During the war, England aligned with the Allies against Germany and the other Axis powers. As the horrors of German concentration camps become widely known, sympathy for the defeated Nazis diminishes further.

Today: English politics are now more focused on domestic issues rather than international ones. While England remains active in international bodies like the United Nations, the government primarily addresses concerns such as taxes, federal spending, healthcare, crime, and immigration.

1920s: For vacations within Great Britain, people predominantly use automobiles to reach their destinations.

1950s: Many Britons take advantage of comfortable passenger trains for their holiday travels. While some still enjoy road trips, others prefer trains to reduce travel time, allowing them more leisure time at their destinations.

Today: English travelers continue to utilize the train system for vacations, though many opt for air travel to significantly cut down travel time. Like in the United States, flying is often an affordable option.

The closest comparison to Ishiguro's novel is Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier (1915), which many critics regard as a perfect example of unreliable narration and the portrayal of subjective human memory. Throughout the story, Ford's narrator comes to the realization that he has entirely misunderstood the events he recounts. This eventual awakening of the narrator, as much as the events themselves, contributes to the psychological depth of both Ford's and Ishiguro's books.

The Remains of the Day stands as Ishiguro's most accomplished novel to date, showcasing the maturation of his recurring themes and his most refined use of literary techniques. Similar to his earlier works, A Pale View of the Hills (1982) and An Artist of the Floating World (1986), Ishiguro explores a world in transition, specifically post-World War II Britain, and examines how traditional values and customs are evolving. The British can no longer sustain the grandeur of global dominance, nor can they maintain their grand estates, symbolized by Farraday's ownership of Darlington Hall. Amidst this shifting landscape, Ishiguro delves into the unreliability of memory and the comparative merits of loyalty, fidelity, and unquestioning service.

Michael York narrates a successful abridgment of The Remains of the Day for Random House Audio (1989). This version maintains the emotional depth of the storyline, and York's performance is adept. However, the omission of background details and some key events in this shortened version makes it an unsatisfactory replacement for the printed novel.

Ismail Merchant and James Ivory's 1993 film adaptation of The Remains of the Day captures many of the novel's strengths. Their skillful depiction of the setting and era vividly brings Darlington Hall to life. Anthony Hopkins excels as Stevens, drawing on his experience portraying similar characters in E. M. Forster's Howards End (1991) and William Nicholson's Shadowlands (1993). Few actors could better convey Stevens's frosty exterior while hinting at the underlying vitality. Emma Thompson also delivers a compelling and engaging portrayal of Miss Kenton, and the chemistry between her Kenton and Hopkins's Stevens is evident.

In the film, Christopher Reeve combines the roles of Mr. Lewis, an American senator attending one of Darlington Hall's conferences, and Mr. Farraday. Unlike the novel, the film concludes not on a boardwalk but back at Darlington Hall. Here, Stevens and his new employer capture a stray pigeon and release it, symbolically allowing it to fly away from the manor. While these changes may distract readers familiar with the book, the film stands well on its own merits.

The Remains of the Day was turned into an audiobook by Random House in 1990, featuring British actor Michael York as the narrator.

In 1993, Columbia Pictures adapted the novel into a film. Directed by James Ivory, the movie starred Anthony Hopkins as Stevens and Emma Thompson as Miss Kenton. It garnered numerous prestigious awards and nominations globally, including from the American Academy Awards, British Academy Awards, and Golden Globe Awards. Both Hopkins and Thompson received David di Donatello Awards for their performances.

Annan, Gabriele, “On the High Wire,” in New York Review of Books, Vol. 36, No. 19, December 7, 1989, pp. 3–4.

Coates, Joseph, Review of The Remains of the Day, in Chicago Tribune, October 1, 1989, p. 5.

Dyer, Geoff, Review of The Remains of the Day, in New Statesman, May 26, 1989.

Graver, Lawrence, “What the Butler Saw,” in New York Times Book Review, October 8, 1989, p. 3.

Gurewich, David, “Upstairs, Downstairs,” in New Criterion, Vol. 8, No. 4, December 1989, pp. 77–80.

Hassan, Ihab, “An Extravagant Reticence,” in World and I, Vol. 5, No. 2, February 1990, pp. 369–74.

Kakutani, Michiko, “Books of the Times; An Era Revealed in a Perfect Butler’s Imperfections,” in New York Times, September 22, 1989, p. 33.

Lee, Hermione, Review of The Remains of the Day, in New Republic, Vol. 202, No. 4, January 22, 1990, pp. 36–39.

Mesher, D., “Kazuo Ishiguro,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 194: British Novelists Since 1960, The Gale Group, 1998, pp. 145–53.

Rubin, Merle, Review of The Remains of the Day, in Christian Science Monitor, November 30, 1989, p. 13.

Rushdie, Salman, Review of The Remains of the Day, in Observer, May 21, 1989, p. 53.

Strawson, Galen, Review of The Remains of the Day, in Times Literary Supplement, May 19, 1989.

Further Reading
Cannadine, David, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy, Vintage Books, 1999. Cannadine delves into the intricate reasons behind the transformation of the British aristocracy from a dominant group of affluent landowners to a diminishing class, losing both their sons in World War I and their societal power. To support his analysis, Cannadine incorporates letters, statistics, and historical records in his social history.

Ishiguro, Kazuo, When We Were Orphans, Knopf, 2000. Touted as one of Ishiguro’s most sophisticated and accomplished works, this novel follows nine-year-old Christopher, whose parents vanish from their Shanghai residence. He is sent to live in England and, as an adult, returns to Shanghai to unravel the mystery of his family's disappearance.

Shaffer, Brian W., Understanding Kazuo Ishiguro, Random House, 1998. Part of the Understanding Contemporary British Literature series, this book examines Ishiguro's life and career. Shaffer provides insight into Ishiguro's use of setting, psychological depth, and first-person narration, while also analyzing the significant impact of the author's dual heritage on his work.

Vorda, Allan, and Kim Herzinger, “Stuck on the Margins: An Interview with Kazuo Ishiguro,” in Face to Face: Interviews with Contemporary Novelists, Rice University Press, 1993, pp. 1–35. In this interview, Ishiguro discusses the influences of Japanese and British cultures on his writing. He also reflects on how being perceived as a British-Japanese writer has affected his career in England.