only when individuals face the harsh realities of nihility, paving their way to the "field of emptiness," where ultimate reality can be realized.

A Transformative Religious Quest

Nishitani emphasizes that the quest for religious meaning transcends mere intellectual exploration. While philosophical discourse plays a role, the essence of this journey is found in the "self-realization of reality," a transformative process that engages both body and mind. This holistic transformation signifies a profound change where individuals experience a unity with existence, embracing emptiness as the foundation for a renewed sense of purpose and spiritual fulfillment.

Nishitani delves into the complex relationship between dehumanization and the evolution of thought since the Enlightenment. He posits that the personal sense of nihility, or nothingness, reflects a broader cultural nihilism rooted in the era's scientific rationalism. This period marked a significant shift away from the traditional theocentric worldview, dominated by the notion of divine purpose, towards an anthropocentric perspective that emphasized human progress. In this new paradigm, individuals were liberated to seek truth through reason rather than deferring to religious authority, and they pursued the betterment of humanity without the need for divine intervention. Yet, this newfound freedom came at a steep price—humans lost their sense of belonging within a divinely ordered universe, finding themselves instead in a world perceived as indifferent and impersonal.

Nishitani argues that this scientific worldview, initially intended to unravel the mysteries of nature, inadvertently reduced human beings to mere subjects of the same mechanical laws that govern the natural world. Humans, once viewed as entities with inherent purpose and dignity, became reducible to collections of chemical, biological, and psychological processes. Consequently, both humanity and nature were stripped of their intrinsic value, becoming dehumanized and denaturalized.

This dehumanization, according to Nishitani, exposes an inherent contradiction within the Enlightenment's ideal of human progress. The belief was that scientific inquiry would reveal nature's laws, empowering humans to harness and control it for their advancement and autonomy. However, in stripping away the divine and reducing humans to mechanistic entities, this process undermined the very autonomy it sought to enhance. Instead of gaining greater freedom through scientific and technological advancement, humanity lost its sense of self-governance and individuality. The quest for progress, once thought to be a path towards liberation, paradoxically led to the erosion of the foundational basis for true human freedom.

Nishitani posits an intriguing linkage between Christianity, the Enlightenment, and the rise of nihilism, suggesting that the seemingly secular Enlightenment is ironically rooted in Christian concepts of time and history. Both Christianity and Enlightenment ideologies embark on a quest for origins, whether through the biblical Genesis or a scientific natural cause of the universe, and both anticipate a climactic future—whether it be the Second Coming or an enlightened society. This framework posits a linear trajectory of historical events leading to an ultimate goal. Nishitani argues that this linear conception of history, embedded in Christianity, not only contributed to its own decline but also left it inadequately equipped to counter the pervasive nihilism of modern thought.

Yet, Nishitani also sees a pathway through mystical Christianity to surmount nihilism. He delves into the mystical teachings of Meister Eckhart, the thirteenth-century Dominican preacher, who offers a profound perspective on the God-Godhead dichotomy. In Eckhart’s theology, the "Godhead" represents the ineffable essence of God, transcending all forms and attributes, while "God" is the tangible form that engages in the Creator/created relationship. This relationship, according to Eckhart, remains secondary to the Godhead's absolute essence. Humans, created in God’s image, have their essence rooted in this Godhead, and through mystical awakening, they can penetrate this divine essence, recognizing both their own and God’s essence. Eckhart describes this Godhead as "absolute nothingness," a concept Nishitani finds parallel to the Buddhist idea of emptiness. It is through this lens of nothingness that Nishitani believes Christianity can effectively engage with and rise above nihilism.

This breakthrough into absolute nothingness—whether from a Christian or Buddhist perspective—heralds an awakening to the "eternal now," a timeless state that underlies past, present, and future. This realization renders the linear progression of time irrelevant and signifies a transcendence of the self. In an ironic twist, Nishitani perceives the phenomena of dehumanization and nihilism as potential gateways to this realization of nothingness. As individuals confront the precipice of absolute nihilism, where neither internal nor external meanings can be discerned, they are pushed to the brink of meaninglessness. It is within this profound void that the opportunity emerges to enter a state of emptiness, experiencing the presence of the eternal here and now.

The intricate interplay between representation and existential contemplation unveils a paradox central to contemporary philosophical discourse. In exploring this theme, philosopher Keiji Nishitani delves into the dichotomous nature of self-perception against the backdrop of twentieth-century nihilism. This analysis invites a deeper understanding of the field of consciousness and the quest for genuine self-awareness.

The Field of Consciousness

Nishitani identifies the "field of consciousness" as the backdrop for all ordinary experiences, where perceptions are divided into subjects and objects. Within this framework, anything perceived is externalized as an object distinct from the self, which is viewed as the subject. This dualistic view is merely a mental construction that represents objects, events, and individuals as entities existing "out there," juxtaposed against the self residing "in here." This representation process, however, is paradoxical because the self itself becomes objectified within this schema—a phenomenon Nishitani terms "the paradox of representation." Thus, when individuals introspect or examine their existence, they still perceive themselves as objects within the mental construct, never grasping their true essence.

The Sartrean Perspective

Examining the works of French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, Nishitani highlights how the paradox of representation manifests within Sartre's existentialism. Sartre posits that human essence is rooted in existence, which itself is founded on nothingness. This notion of nothingness offers human beings unconditional freedom, liberating them from any authoritative constraints. Yet, this freedom is accompanied by existential responsibility, as humans must navigate their moral choices without external or internal guidance. Consequently, individuals are "condemned to freedom," a state defined by autonomous decision-making devoid of predetermined criteria.

Critique of Sartre's Conception

While Nishitani concurs with Sartre on the foundational role of nothingness, he questions the framework within which Sartre defines this concept. Sartre's depiction of nothingness as a launching pad for human agency remains entrenched in the subject/object dichotomy. By representing nothingness objectively, Sartre inadvertently perpetuates the dualistic field of consciousness. According to Nishitani, this renders Sartre's existentialism insufficient in resolving the self's alienation and self-absorption, as it merely offers a constructed representation rather than engaging with the self's authentic foundation.

Breaking Through to Emptiness

Nishitani suggests transcending the field of consciousness to access the "field of emptiness," where all dualities—such as subject/object and existence/nonexistence—are dissolved. This field exists beyond the realm of consciousness, yet simultaneously underlies all reality. Emptiness embodies dual characteristics: it is both a state to be realized through transcending consciousness and inherently present within all things. Drawing from Buddhist philosophy, Nishitani refers to this duality as "actualized enlightenment" and "original enlightenment." This transformative realization, termed "transdescendence," signifies not only a transcendence of duality but also a return to the innate state of nonduality.

In essence, Nishitani's exploration of the paradox of representation invites a departure from conventional self-perception towards a profound encounter with the foundational emptiness that transcends dualistic thinking. By moving beyond the constructed representations within consciousness, individuals can potentially achieve a form of enlightenment that reconciles the paradox through the realization of an original, nondual state of being.

The introduction of the English translation of Religion and Nothingness heralded a significant moment in the cross-cultural dialogue between East and West. This groundbreaking work brought to Western audiences the insights of a dedicated Buddhist thinker, who was deeply versed in Western philosophy and theology. Its arrival was met with enthusiasm by theologians and philosophers across Europe and the United States. Religion and Nothingness provided a multifaceted offering: it served as a Buddhist critique of Western philosophical traditions, addressed the religious and existential dilemmas of the mid-twentieth century, and laid a robust foundation for discussions across different faiths.

Throughout the 1990s, debates surrounding Religion and Nothingness predominantly engaged with philosophical and theological themes. However, as critical scholarship on Martin Heidegger, Nishitani’s professor at Freiburg, evolved—particularly focusing on Heidegger's association with Nazism—scholars began to explore the intricate connections between Kyoto School philosophers and pre-World War II Japanese nationalism. Despite this scholarly scrutiny, direct links between Nishitani’s philosophical endeavors and the nationalistic fervor prevalent in Japan during that era remain elusive.