significant social and political upheaval in the mid-19th century during the Civil War, when the southern states rebelled against President Lincoln's government and the northern states over the issue of slavery. The North's victory in the Civil War led to the abolition of slavery in the United States.

The post-Civil War period, known as Reconstruction, saw the South grappling with numerous social and political challenges regarding race and the rights of African Americans newly freed from slavery. During this time, a constitutional amendment was passed granting all adult males the right to vote, irrespective of race. However, women were still barred from voting, leading to the rise of a national movement advocating for women's suffrage, which eventually came to be known as the women's suffrage movement.

Narrative Voice

Narrative voice refers to the method by which a story is conveyed. Many realist authors aimed to tell their stories with an omniscient, objective voice. This voice comes from a narrator who is not a part of the story but instead acts as an unseen presence, existing outside the narrative. Realist writers believed this approach would help them depict reality accurately. French realist authors like Balzac, Flaubert, Zola, and Maupassant especially focused on describing their subjects in precise, detailed terms without the narrator offering judgments or moral commentary.

Setting

Setting plays a crucial role in Realist literature. Writers of this genre aimed to capture the essence of their contemporary societies by accurately representing specific locations. Realist novels were set in both urban and rural environments, with authors striving to realistically depict the living and working conditions of people from all levels of society. Consequently, realist novelists portrayed settings from diverse backgrounds in major cities like London, Paris, New York, Boston, Moscow, and St. Petersburg. Detailed descriptions of the lives of peasants and serfs in rural areas of England, Russia, and France were also common in the works of leading realist authors.

Realist authors also placed their stories within the context of specific historical events from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities is set during the French Revolution. The collection Evenings at Médan features six short stories by different authors, all set during the Franco-German war of 1870–1871. Eliot’s Middlemarch takes place in a fictional town amid significant political debates over social reform in England during the early nineteenth century. Tolstoy’s War and Peace unfolds against the backdrop of the Napoleonic wars between Russia and France in the early 1800s.

Characterization

Realist authors are often praised for their skillful portrayal of a diverse array of characters from various backgrounds. Balzac, in his series The Human Comedy, aspired to create a comprehensive array of characters that represented all facets of contemporary French society. Across the nearly ninety novels that make up The Human Comedy, Balzac introduced over three thousand fictional characters. He was also innovative in reusing characters across different novels, allowing a character who is the main focus in one story to appear as a minor figure in another.

Zola, taking inspiration from Balzac’s The Human Comedy, depicted numerous facets of French society in his twenty-volume series, The Rougon-Macquarts, which follows the story of a single family across multiple generations. Howells, influenced by both French and Russian realists, crafted his novel A Hazard of New Fortunes with fifteen central characters, each embodying various perspectives within American political ideology. Dickens is renowned for creating memorable characters, such as the miserly figure in A Christmas Carol, who have become iconic figures in Western culture.

Realist novelists are also acclaimed for the remarkable psychological depth with which they portray their fictional characters. Dostoevsky and Flaubert, in particular, are celebrated for their skill in exploring every subtlety of a character’s psychology to unravel the complex mix of elements that drive them. In their quest to depict characters from diverse backgrounds, realist novelists excelled in their use of dialogue, skillfully capturing regional dialects and the varied speech patterns of individuals from different socioeconomic classes.

Naturalism

Naturalism emerged as a significant branch of Realism, though many critics suggest that the distinctions between the two are so slight that Naturalism is essentially a subset of Realism. Indeed, the terms are often used interchangeably. Naturalism pushed the boundaries of Realism by incorporating the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin into literature. Writers of this movement believed that a person's life path is shaped by a mix of inherited traits and the historical and social context they are born into. As a result, characters are largely depicted as victims of their circumstances with limited ability to alter their life's direction.

Led by the French novelist Émile Zola, naturalist authors took Realism's principles to new extremes with their objective and detailed portrayals of all layers of society. Zola's 1880 article “The Experimental Novel,” considered the manifesto of literary Naturalism, likens the author's role to that of a scientist studying a specimen under a microscope. In 1880, Zola edited Evenings at Médan, a collection of stories by six writers from his circle who frequently gathered at his home in Médan. Notable followers of Zola's Naturalism include French authors Maupassant and Joris-Karl Huysmans, as well as German playwright Gerhart Hauptmann and Portuguese novelist Jose Maria Eça de Queirós.

Naturalism's impact on American literature emerged with later authors such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser. The movement also found advocates in theater and painting.

The Parnassian Poets

The Parnassian poets, who arose in France during the 1860s, represented another branch of the realist literary movement. The term "Parnassian" is derived from an anthology of poetry to which key poets of this movement contributed, titled Le Parnasse Contemporain, published in three volumes between 1866 and 1876.

The Parnassian poets formulated their ideals as a counter-response to the emotional intensity of Romantic poetry. They aimed for emotional restraint and precise, objective descriptions in their work. The leading figure of the Parnassian poets was Leconte de Lisle, with other prominent poets including Albert Glatigny, Théodore de Banville, François Coppée, Léon Dierx, and José Maria de Heredia. The Parnassian poets significantly influenced the poetry of Spain, Portugal, and Belgium.

American Regionalism and Local Color Fiction

In the United States, following the Civil War, significant subgenres of Realism emerged, known as Regionalism (also referred to as Midwestern Regionalism) and local color fiction. Regionalist writers were primarily from the Midwest and focused their narratives on the struggles faced by rural Midwesterners, as well as the residents of Chicago. Notable regionalist authors include Hamlin Garland, Theodore Dreiser, and Sherwood Anderson. Local color fiction, closely related to Regionalism, highlights the local customs, traditions, dialects, and folklore of small-town and rural America. Prominent local color authors include Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Kate Chopin.

Realism in Painting

The leading figure associated with Realism in painting was the French artist Gustave Courbet (1819–1877). Courbet's artwork was the primary inspiration behind the evolution of Realism in literature. He revolutionized painting by portraying the harsh realities of workers and peasants through stark, unromanticized images. Courbet introduced the groundbreaking notion that art should truthfully depict the plain realities and the everyday person, rather than presenting idealized scenes. His renowned works include “The Stone-Breakers” (1849), illustrating two men engaged in manual labor in a rural environment, and “Burial at Ornans” (1849), which captures a peasant's funeral with over forty individual figures. Due to his bold departure from traditional art standards, Courbet struggled for acknowledgment within the art community. In 1855, after being rejected by a major French exhibition, Courbet organized his own showcase of paintings, which he termed “realist.” Courbet's Realism profoundly influenced numerous writers and artists across Europe. In the United States, Realism significantly impacted nineteenth-century painting, notably practiced by Winslow Homer and Thomas Eakins, and continued to shape various early-twentieth-century painting movements.

1840–1900: France undergoes significant governmental transformations. With the 1848 Revolution, France enters the Second Republic era. Between 1852 and 1870, the government is recognized as the Second Empire. Following the 1871 revolution, France transitions into the Third Republic, which continues until 1940. During the Republic periods, all adult males in France are granted voting rights in political elections. However, women do not have the right to vote.

Today: Since 1959, France operates under the Fifth Republic, a constitutional democracy led by an elected president. Both women and men possess full voting rights. France is part of the European Union, an alliance of around fifteen European countries united by shared economic and political goals to foster peace, security, and economic growth.

1850–1900: Russia is an empire governed by a series of autocratic czars. A significant societal reform occurs in 1861 with the emancipation of the serfs.

Today: Russia has recently transitioned from communist rule, which lasted from the 1917 revolution until the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991. Both women and men have full voting rights. Since 1991, the former Soviet Union has broken into approximately twelve independent nation-states, with Russia being the largest and most influential. These nations form a coalition known as the Commonwealth of Independent States.

1850–1900: England is governed by a parliament and a prime minister under a reigning queen. Slavery was abolished in England as of 1833. Various reform laws significantly increase the number of white men eligible to vote. Women, however, do not have voting rights.

Today: England is governed by a prime minister and parliament, with the queen serving as a ceremonial figurehead with limited political power. Both women and men now have full voting rights. England is part of the European Union, a fifteen-member organization of European countries united by shared social, economic, political, and security interests.

1850–1900: The United States is a constitutional democracy led by an elected president. The country faces major internal conflict during the Civil War. Following the Civil War, slavery is abolished, and African-American men are granted voting rights. However, women do not have the right to vote.

Today: The United States has remained a stable democracy since the 1776 revolution. Both women and men enjoy full voting rights.

Anna Karenina

Anna Karenina (1875–1877), penned by the Russian realist Leo Tolstoy, is acclaimed as one of the finest novels ever written. The narrative explores the lives of three Russian families: the Oblonskys, the Karenins, and the Levins. Within the Oblonsky household, the husband, Stiva, is unfaithful to his wife, Dolly. Tolstoy's renowned opening line in Anna Karenina addresses the Oblonskys: “All happy families resemble each other; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”

The Karenin family is thrown into turmoil when Anna Karenina (the feminine form of the surname Karenin) abandons her husband and child due to an affair with Aleksey Vronsky, a young officer in the military. The third storyline in Anna Karenina follows the young Konstantin Levin and his pursuit of Dolly’s sister, Kitty. Konstantin's character embodies one of Tolstoy’s central philosophical beliefs: that the best life is grounded in the everyday realities of honest labor, a stable family life, and domestic tranquility, while intellectualizing about life is pointless.

“Ball of Fat”

“Ball of Fat,” originally titled “Boule de Suif,” is regarded as Guy de Maupassant's masterpiece. “Ball of Fat” was first introduced in 1880 in Les Soirées de Médan (Evenings at Médan), a collection of stories by six authors centered on the Franco-German war of 1870–1871.

In “Ball of Fat,” a prostitute travels by coach with several other French passengers, all fleeing the German occupation of Rouen. Initially, the other travelers are cordial to her because she possesses food they want to share. When they stop for the night at a hotel, a German officer threatens to halt their journey unless the prostitute satisfies his desires. Reluctant to consort with the enemy, she initially refuses his demands. However, to secure their safe passage, the other passengers pressure her into yielding to the officer. Afterward, they ostracize her for giving in. “Ball of Fat” exemplifies Maupassant’s skill in crafting concise and impactful short stories.

Crime and Punishment

Prestupleniye i nakazaniye (1866; Crime and Punishment), penned by the Russian realist Fyodor Dostoevsky, is hailed as one of the finest novels ever written. The story follows a young intellectual named Raskolnikov, who uses philosophical arguments to justify his plan to murder an elderly woman for her wealth. However, following the murder, he is consumed by a profound spiritual fear. Concurrently, a detective, convinced of Raskolnikov's guilt, cleverly persuades him to admit to the crime. Once Raskolnikov is found guilty and sent to a Siberian prison, Sonya Marmeladova, the woman who loves him, moves close to the prison to be near him. Under Sonya's influence, Raskolnikov undergoes a religious transformation during his imprisonment. Dostoevsky is acclaimed for his meticulous psychological exploration of Raskolnikov, examining the intricate and subtle factors driving his actions.

David Copperfield

David Copperfield (1849–1850), by English realist Charles Dickens, remains one of his most beloved and enduring works and was also the author's personal favorite. This semi-autobiographical novel draws from Dickens's own childhood and early adult experiences to tell the story of a fictional character named David Copperfield. The novel is especially noted for its early chapters capturing childhood memories, including a depiction of Dickens's own experience of being removed from school to work in a London factory while his father was jailed for debt. Through David Copperfield, Dickens addresses the social injustices related to urban poverty and industrial labor.

Germinal

Émile Zola's novel Germinal (1885) is considered his masterpiece and is a pivotal work in the Naturalism movement in literature. Set in a mining town, Germinal explores the socioeconomic conflicts between the working-class miners and the affluent mine owners. The story illustrates the impact of a miners' strike on the community and delves into significant political ideologies of the time, including Marxism, socialism, and trade unionism. Zola uses the metaphor of a monstrous entity to describe the coal mine, which consumes the laborers who work there. In this novel, Zola accurately depicts the conditions of the two distinct social classes while engaging with critical political discussions on socioeconomic disparities.

A Hazard of New Fortunes

A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890), authored by the leading American realist William Dean Howells, is recognized as one of his most significant works. Set in New York City, the novel follows a group of individuals attempting to launch a magazine. Inspired by Tolstoy’s War and Peace, Howells crafted a lengthy novel with a broad scope and numerous characters. The book features fifteen main characters and is distinguished by Howells’s portrayal of various social strata in New York City during the 1890s, as well as his depiction of the bustling city life. Howells expressed strong socialist views in A Hazard of New Fortunes, with many characters representing diverse perspectives on the American political spectrum.

The Human Comedy

The Human Comedy, originally titled La Comédie humaine (1842–1855), is a collection of about ninety novels and novellas by Honoré de Balzac. Balzac’s fiction vividly portrays all levels of French society with remarkable precision. He is renowned for the extensive range of characters he created, totaling around three thousand throughout The Human Comedy. Balzac pioneered the literary technique of recurring characters across different novels. He excelled in characterization, capturing the intricate psychological and sociological details that shape each character’s personality and actions. The Human Comedy explores themes such as social class, ambition, and obsession.

Madame Bovary

Madame Bovary (1857) by Gustave Flaubert is regarded as a foundational work of realist fiction and one of the most distinguished novels ever written. The novel narrates the story of a middle-class woman whose extramarital affairs end in tragedy. Initially published in serial form in a magazine in 1856, Madame Bovary led to Flaubert being prosecuted by the French government in 1857 for its alleged immorality. However, his lawyer successfully defended the case, and the novel was subsequently published as a book. It is celebrated for Flaubert’s narrative impartiality and his detailed psychological portrayal of the events set in motion by his characters.

Middlemarch

Middlemarch (1871–1872), written by George Eliot, is acclaimed as the pinnacle of a prominent English realist author and ranks among the greatest novels ever penned. Set in a small fictional town in rural England, Middlemarch is renowned for Eliot's detailed portrayal of characters from diverse backgrounds. Although the novel features numerous significant characters, the story primarily revolves around Dorothea, a young woman who marries an older cleric and religious scholar, aspiring to lead a purposeful life. A central theme in Eliot's novel is the notion that the seemingly unremarkable lives of seemingly ordinary individuals can profoundly impact those around them. Middlemarch is regarded as a milestone in the evolution of the novel, raising the genre to a new level of intellectual sophistication.

Numerous realist novels by Charles Dickens have been transformed into films for both theaters and television, with adaptations dating back to the 1930s. The novel David Copperfield was brought to the screen in 1935 under the direction of George Cukor and again in 1970, directed by Delbert Mann.

Several of Dickens’s novels have also been released on audiocassette. In 1999, Media Books Audio Publishing recorded David Copperfield, featuring Ben Kingsley as the narrator. In 2002, Audio Partners Publishing Corp. released a twenty-six cassette edition with Martin Jarvis as the reader.

Dostoevsky's significant works have likewise been adapted into films and recorded on audiocassette. Crime and Punishment was adapted into two films in 1935, one of which was a French production, and later into a Russian film in 1970.

Michael Sheen narrated an audiocassette recording of Crime and Punishment for Naxos of America in 1994.

Several of Eliot’s novels have been adapted for film and captured on audiocassette. The novel Middlemarch was made into a television movie directed by Anthony Page in 1994.

In the same year, Middlemarch was recorded on audiocassette by Blackstone Audio Books, with narration by Nadia May.

Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary has been adapted into films multiple times. The first English-language version was released in 1949 and directed by Vincente Minnelli. A television adaptation was directed by Tim Fywell in 2000.

In 2002, Madame Bovary was recorded by New Millennium Audio, featuring Glenda Jackson as the reader.

Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina was transformed into films in 1935 with Greta Garbo, in 1947 with Vivien Leigh, as a ballet in 1974, and in 1985 featuring Christopher Reeve.

The audiocassette version of Anna Karenina was released by Bantam Books as part of the “BBC Radio Presents” series in 1999.

Sources

Pasco, Allan H., “Honoré de Balzac,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 119: Nineteenth-Century French Fiction Writers: Romanticism and Realism, 1800–1860, edited by Catharine Savage Brosman, Gale Research, 1992, pp. 3–33.

Snow, C. P., The Realists: Eight Portraits, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978, p. xi.

Wolfe, Tom, “Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast: A Literary Manifesto for the New Social Novel,” in Harper’s, November 1989, pp. 45–56.

Further Reading

Brown, Frederick, Zola: A Life, Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1995. Brown delivers a detailed biography of Émile Zola, a leading figure in French realist literature and the pioneer of the naturalist literary movement.

Hornback, Burt G., “The Hero of My Life”: Essays on Dickens, Ohio University Press, 1981. Hornback presents a collection of essays analyzing what Dickens imparts about freedom, love, friendship, tragedy, and the imaginative process. The primary focus is on the novel David Copperfield, with additional insights into Our Mutual Friend and The Mystery of Edwin Drood.

Hughes, Kathryn, George Eliot: The Last Victorian, Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1998. Hughes offers a comprehensive biography of the English realist novelist George Eliot, exploring her life within the context of Victorian culture and society.

Robb, Graham, Balzac: A Life, Norton, 1994. This biography by Robb provides an in-depth examination of Balzac’s novels, highlighting their connection to the events in his life.

Thomas, Alan, Time in a Frame: Photography and the Nineteenth-Century Mind, Schocken Books, 1977. Alan explores the popular themes in nineteenth-century photography, including portraits of individuals and families, travel images, historical records, landscapes, and scenes from everyday life.

Wilson, A. N., Tolstoy, Norton, 1988. Wilson offers an extensive biography of Leo Tolstoy, a prominent Russian realist novelist.