expanded the war, investing more resources and lives, and extending the violence into neighboring Cambodia and Laos, which only fueled domestic protests. President Richard Nixon, attempting to appease both sides, vowed that a settlement would be reached, but insisted America would not accept "peace without honor." In 1973, U.S. troops were withdrawn. By 1975, the U.S. government ceased sending financial and military aid to South Vietnam, and almost immediately, Saigon fell to the Communists from the North. On television, Americans watched in shock as American diplomats in Saigon fled in panic, with army helicopters desperately trying to evacuate them—a powerful image that suggested the war remained unresolved, creating the impression of America retreating.

While President Nixon was orchestrating the withdrawal of troops, he was also preoccupied with the potential downfall of his presidency. The trouble began on June 17, 1972, when five individuals were apprehended for breaking into the Democratic National Party headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, DC. Investigators quickly uncovered links between the burglars and Nixon's reelection committee. As the 1972 presidential election approached, reports began to surface connecting the burglars to the Nixon White House, but the public largely ignored them. Consequently, in November, Nixon defeated the Democratic candidate, George McGovern. However, throughout 1973 and 1974, investigations continued to reveal damning evidence linking those who orchestrated the break-in to high-ranking government officials, including members of the Cabinet and Nixon's Chief of Staff. These inquiries also exposed additional crimes associated with Nixon, such as tax issues and the misuse of government agencies to target his political adversaries.

On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned. His successor, Gerald Ford, granted Nixon an unconditional pardon for any offenses he might have committed while in office. Disillusioned that Ford allowed Nixon to escape trial for his actions, the nation voted Ford out of office in the 1976 elections. In 1975, as Ragtime enjoyed immense popularity on the bestseller lists, the country was in the process of recovering from the unraveling of its social institutions.

Point of View
The novel's perspective is ambiguous. The dominant viewpoint seems to be that of the Little Boy, as his character is thoroughly detailed. Much of the information presented could have been obtained by him, either through personal experiences or secondary sources like his uncle's journals or newspaper articles. When the narrative positions itself as speaking "nearly fifty years after Houdini's death," it suggests that the story might be recounted by the Little Boy as an adult (since Houdini died in 1926, almost fifty years before the book's publication). However, numerous details are present that the Little Boy could not realistically know, such as the private thoughts of notable figures like J. Pierpont Morgan and Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Throughout the novel, the narrator uses an anonymous "we," likely symbolizing America. In the final chapter, the narrator adopts a clear persona, speaking in the first person: "Poor Father, I see his final exploration." Despite the contradictions, most evidence suggests that if the narrator is a specific individual (as opposed to an omniscient narrator, who relays the story without being part of it), it is likely the Little Boy.

Zeitgeist ("Spirit of the Time")
The novel's success relies more on capturing the essence of early twentieth-century American life than on any specific characters or storylines. While no novel or historical account can fully immerse readers in that era, Ragtime endeavors to highlight the social issues and prominent figures of the time to convey its atmosphere. The book's structure, featuring brief scenes and concise chapters that cover a wide range of people and situations, helps convey the new century's dynamic and chaotic spirit. One seemingly trivial yet symbolic event involves novelist Theodore Dreiser, mentioned briefly at the end of Chapter 4 and then not again: "One day he decides his chair was facing the wrong direction. He gets up to move it, then moves it again, then again. Throughout the night Dreiser turned his chair in circles seeking the proper alignment." The book's erratic movement and its characters have been likened to this frustrated circling. Each historical figure—Harry Houdini, Harry K. Thaw, Sigmund Freud, Booker T. Washington, Emma Goldman, J. P. Morgan, and others—contributes a distinct hue to the overall depiction, with no single narrative overshadowing the collective impact.

Irony
This novel expertly employs irony, preparing readers to anticipate one outcome only to lead them to developments that, while logical, diverge from expectations. These twists often serve to puncture arrogance. For example, Houdini, with noble intentions for humanity, offers money to subway workers who survived a disaster. Introducing himself as an "escapologist," he is promptly lifted and thrown out of the hospital. Morgan gathers America's wealthiest men to exchange wisdom, only to find them preoccupied with digestion, drifting off to sleep, and muttering nonsense: "Without exception, the dozen most powerful men in America looked like horse's asses," he observes. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, whose assassination sparked the global turmoil of World War I, is so confused by his formal meeting with Houdini that he mistakenly believes the airplane Houdini presents is his own invention. After a lifetime of defying the government, Emma Goldman is deported not for her activism but for commenting on the Coalhouse Walker affair. J. P. Morgan, in his quest for eternal knowledge in the pyramid, instead encounters bedbugs and catches a cold that ultimately leads to his demise. While any compelling novel includes unexpected turns to avoid predictability, Ragtime consistently employs reversals of expectation to highlight the frailties of the old ruling class, all while maintaining an ironic tone that feigns support for traditional values.

The narrative technique in Ragtime is both creative and intricate. The story is told from the perspective of a minor character, the only child of Mother and Father. However, this young boy rarely appears in the novel, and his role as the future narrator isn't clarified until midway through the book. Readers are prompted to envision that this character has pieced together the story later in life, reflecting on his family's history. Consequently, the novel is narrated in the first person, but the narrator is largely absent from the unfolding events. It is only in Chapter Fifteen that Doctorow delves into the boy's thoughts and imagination, shedding light on his narrative approach.

The blending of history and fiction is equally ingenious. Doctorow merges the two so seamlessly that fictional characters like Coalhouse Walker seem more authentic than historical figures such as Sigmund Freud or Booker T. Washington. In dialogues between Coalhouse Walker and Booker T. Washington, it's Walker's voice that resonates more convincingly within the novel. Doctorow appears to have masterfully transformed history into fiction and vice versa.

Another distinctive feature of Ragtime is its cinematic style. Doctorow employs short sentences and swiftly transitions from one scene to another. This creates the effect of a fast-moving camera capturing a decade of history before it dissolves into a world war. This style aligns with the young narrator's fascination with the emerging art of cinema. The brief sentences and quick scene shifts mirror the narrator's belief "that the world composed and recomposed itself constantly in an endless process of dissatisfaction."

Ragtime is a bold blend of fiction and historical events. Doctorow uses this narrative to mirror a decade of history, highlighting the social and political issues prevalent in America just before World War I. The story follows a wealthy Republican family striving to maintain their privilege and status in a world where patriotism spirals into chaos and conflict. Simultaneously, a struggling immigrant family fights to endure the harsh realities of tenement life, and a black musician loses his life in a violent protest against discrimination and racial injustice. The fictional characters’ intertwined stories are set against the backdrop of real historical figures such as Henry Ford, J. P. Morgan, Sigmund Freud, Houdini, Commander Peary, Emma Goldman, Evelyn Nesbit, and Booker T. Washington.

Doctorow's historical mirror offers multiple perspectives on the American Dream. J. P. Morgan is portrayed as a conceited individual, obsessed with the power of wealth and dreaming of his own immortality. Yet, the wealthy and famous characters in the novel often encounter failure and disillusionment. The only character who successfully pursues the American Dream is a poor immigrant artist who becomes a successful film director. Ultimately, Ragtime reflects Doctorow's emphasis on social justice and the importance of creative expression over class and wealth.

1909: An interpreter working for a French film company, who attended the inauguration of President William Howard Taft, came up with the idea of capturing news events on film. This innovation eventually led to newsreels being screened in theaters worldwide.

1975: The news divisions of the three major television networks competed fiercely based on their journalistic integrity.

Today: There are cable television channels dedicated to a wide range of interests, including sports, weather, and both local and national news.

1907: During a significant wave of immigration in U.S. history, 1.2 million people arrived, primarily from Europe. From 1900 to 1914, the country saw an average influx of one million immigrants annually. The percentage of foreign-born individuals in the U.S. reached a peak of fifteen percent.

1975: Immigration rates, which had been declining since World War I, reached a low, representing about five percent of the U.S. population.

Today: The growth of multinational corporations and advancements in communication have created a more connected world, increasing awareness of global opportunities. Immigration to the U.S. has risen, with significant numbers coming from Asian and Latin American countries.

1908: The 1908 Summer Olympics featured athletes from twenty-two different nations.

Today: Athletes from over 175 countries participate in the Olympic Games.

1901: Booker T. Washington's autobiography, Up from Slavery, detailed post-Civil War conditions in the South. Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation, leading to widespread intolerance and mistreatment of blacks. Although Northern laws were not as overtly discriminatory, abuses were often overlooked.

1975: Following the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and the race riots of the 1960s, the 1970s marked the beginning of a gradual shift towards a more inclusive social order.

Today: While civil rights laws are generally upheld and overt bigotry is frowned upon, blacks and whites still often hold vastly different perspectives, as highlighted by the differing reactions to the 1995 acquittal of O.J. Simpson.

1910s: The North American Woman's Suffrage Association fought for a Constitutional amendment to grant women the right to vote, which was successfully passed in 1919.

1975: At its peak, the Women's Liberation movement worked to raise awareness among both genders about political, economic, and social equality. Although Congress ratified the Equal Rights Amendment in 1972, it did not secure enough state support to become law within the next decade.

Today: Women have access to many of the rights and freedoms advocated by the Women's Movement, regardless of whether they identify as feminists.

Doctorow has recognized his inspiration from Michael Kohlhaas, an eighteenth-century novella by German author Heinrich Von Kleist. The protagonist in Kleist's tale, which is itself based on historical events, is a man resolute in seeking justice in a corrupt world. This concept inspired Doctorow to create Coalhouse Walker and his vehement protest against the racial injustices present in American society. Several plot elements and character traits in Doctorow's novel mirror those in Heinrich Von Kleist's story.

The social realism in Ragtime and its combination of historical and fictional elements are heavily influenced by the American literary tradition of John Steinbeck and John Dos Passos. Doctorow's empathy for those affected by social and economic injustice is as profound as Steinbeck's, and Ragtime often mirrors the documentary-like realism found in Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (1939). While Doctorow's integration of history and fiction is more inventive, his cinematic style draws from the newsreel technique used in Dos Passos's U.S.A. trilogy (1938).

Doctorow's novels are not intended to be read as a cohesive series, yet Ragtime connects with the books that precede and follow it in his body of work. The Book of Daniel (1971) intertwines history and fiction, reimagining the trial and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg from the perspective of their fictional son. This narrative approach of viewing events through a child's eyes is further developed in Ragtime and reaches its most complete form in World's Fair (1985).

Ragtime was adapted into a film in 1981. (Produced by Dino De Laurentiis and directed by Milos Forman, with a screenplay by Michael Weller.) Initially, Robert Altman was set to direct, envisioning a six-hour movie and an extended television series to fully explore the novel's historical depth. However, when Milos Forman took over, the project was reduced to a standard-length film, concentrating primarily on the story of Coalhouse Walker. Many historical figures, notably Emma Goldman and Houdini, were omitted, resulting in a film that was a lackluster and altered version of the original novel. Despite some strong performances, including a final appearance by James Cagney, the film failed to stand on its own merits. Doctorow was left dissatisfied, and the film did not garner the accolades that Forman's other projects typically received.

Blackstone Audio released an audio cassette edition of Ragtime, narrated by William Levine.

The film adaptation of Ragtime from 1981, directed by Milos Foreman with a screenplay by Michael Weller, was made available on videocassette in 1991 by Paramount Home Video.

Sources
David Emblidge, "Progress as Illusion in Doctorow's Novels," Southwest Review, Vol. LXI, Autumn 1977, pp. 397-409.

Barbara Foley, "From U.S.A. to Ragtime: Notes on the Forms of Historical Consciousness in Modern Fiction," American Literature, no. 50, 1978, pp. 85-105.

David S. Gross, "Tales of Obscene Power, Money and Culture, Modernism and History, in the Fiction of E. L. Doctorow," Genre, no. 13, 1980, pp. 71-92.

Paul Levine, E. L. Doctorow, Methuen, 1985.

John G. Parks, "Compositions of Dissatisfaction: Ragtime," Continuum, 1991.

Bernard F. Rodgers Jr., "A Novelist's Revenge," Chicago Review, Vol. 27, 1976, p. 139.

John Seelye, "Doctorow's Dissertation," The New Republic, Vol. CLXXLI, April 10, 1976, p. 22.

Arthur Seltzman, "The Stylistic Energy of E. L. Doctorow," in E. L. Doctorow: Essays and Conversations, edited by Richard Trenner, Ontario Review Press, 1983.

For Further StudyLinda Donn, Freud and Jung: Years of Friendship, Years of Loss, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988.
This engaging and thorough biography provides an insightful examination of two of Ragtime's minor characters and the evolving world over time.

Paul Levine, E. L. Doctorow, Methuen, 1985.
This book, which covers Doctorow's works up to Lives of the Poets, is organized thematically, with chapters like "Politics and Imagination," "Fiction and Formulas," "Fiction and Radicalism," and "Fiction and History."

John G. Parks, E. L. Doctorow, Continuum, 1991.
Parks's chapter on Ragtime provides solid yet typical literary criticism. The final chapter, "A Multiplicity of Witnesses," offers valuable insights into Doctorow's overall writing style.

Richard Trenner, editor, Essays and Conversations, Ontario Review Press, 1983.
The interviews in this compilation cover a range of interests and objectives, while the essays on Doctorow's works in the latter half of the book provide detailed insights and analysis.