British Empire, the war also accelerated the rise of nationalism and autonomy in its colonies. Even before the war, British pride in its Empire peaked prior to Queen Victoria's death in 1901 and the brutal Boer War (1899-1902), fought to maintain British control in South Africa. Despite this, British society proudly claimed that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" and believed in Britain's divine mission across diverse regions such as Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, India, Burma, Egypt, the Sudan, South Africa, Nigeria, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, numerous Caribbean islands, and Canada.

Queen Victoria's lengthy reign from 1837 to 1901 not only provided symbolic unity to the Empire but also brought coherence to British society through a set of principles known as Victorianism. These values emphasized social high-mindedness, which encompassed a Christian sense of charity and service, and domesticity, where most education and entertainment took place at home. Children were raised with strict discipline, encapsulated in the saying, "should be seen and not heard." Additionally, there was a strong belief in expanding knowledge and the power of reasoned argument to transform society. By the time Queen Victoria passed away, many traditional mid-Victorian values were already under scrutiny, as was the class structure that supported them. Despite this, Victorianism continued in a modified form during the reign of Victoria's son, Edward. However, 1914, marked by the play Pygmalion and the start of the Great War, signified a profound symbolic and social shift.

Industrialization
The rapid industrialization of the nineteenth century significantly transformed British society, which had a long-standing tradition of a landed aristocracy and a hierarchical class system, more so than the United States. Industrialization facilitated the rise of a merchant middle class, transitioning British society into a plutocracy—an aristocracy of wealth rather than land. Nevertheless, social mobility remained limited for the lower classes, contributing to Liza's anxiety about her future after Higgins's experiment in Pygmalion.

Throughout the nineteenth century, industrialization prompted a demographic shift, with increasing numbers of agricultural laborers moving to cities in search of work. Unskilled laborers like the Doolittles competed for scarce jobs amidst urban poverty and were largely at the mercy of their employers. Although improved health standards helped address urban crises like tuberculosis and cholera, slum conditions and pervasive urban poverty remained significant social issues into the early twentieth century. Pygmalion explores the subjectivity of class identity and the rapid disintegration of many pre-industrial social structures, yet it also highlights the persistence of strict class distinctions. This is evidenced by the highly unequal distribution of wealth in Britain at the time: between 1911 and 1913, the top 1% of the population controlled 65.5% of the nation's capital. The poorest individuals were often relegated to workhouses, institutions established in the 17th century to employ the impoverished in profitable work. Conditions in these workhouses were intentionally harsh and degrading to deter reliance on them. Although conditions improved later in the 19th century, they remained unpleasant enough that, in Pygmalion, Doolittle accepts his new middle-class status despite other displeasures to avoid the fear of ending up in a workhouse.

The Rise of Women and the Working Classes
During the decade when Pygmalion was written, the political influence of the working class surged significantly, driven by a substantial rise in trade union memberships. Intense class divisions led to a series of strikes and disturbances, including a significant railway strike in 1911, a national miners' strike in 1912, and the formation of the "Triple Alliance" of miners, railway, and transport workers in 1914. The Labour Party, founded in 1893, emerged advocating for an eight-hour workday and other workplace reforms. Concurrently, changes in suffrage laws expanded voting rights, initially for men and later for women, integrating more working-class individuals into Britain's increasingly participatory democracy. Voting rights in Britain had traditionally been tied to property ownership, based on the belief that only landowners possessed the reasoning and information necessary to vote responsibly, supposedly in the best interest of those in lower classes. These property requirements were gradually eased throughout the nineteenth century, progressively enlarging the male electorate.

After years of political struggle by women's organizations known as "suffragettes," women finally secured the right to vote: initially in 1918 for women over 30 who also met property ownership criteria, and then in 1928 for all women over 21 (matching the male voting age). This increased political participation spurred a shift in gender roles: British society had already observed the emergence of the "new woman," leading to further changes such as a growing number of women in the workforce, reforms to divorce laws, and other impacts on domestic life.

Plotting with a Purpose
In the plot of Pygmalion, Higgins, an expert in phonetics, makes a friendly wager with his colleague Colonel Pickering. He bets that he can transform Liza, a humble flower girl, into a lady who can mingle with high society. Although he succeeds, Liza becomes independent and ultimately leaves Higgins, as he fails to meet her emotional needs.

Pygmalion features a tightly-constructed plot with escalating conflict, embodying the characteristics of a "well-made play," which was a popular format at the time. However, Shaw revolutionized the English stage by rejecting certain conventions of the well-made play. He abandoned the theatrical reliance on artificially prolonged conflict and its resolution, instead opting for a theater grounded in realism and ideas. Shaw was significantly influenced by Henrik Ibsen, whom he regarded as a precursor to his own theater of discussion or ideas. Shaw believed that Ibsen's A Doll House exemplified how to end a play ambiguously, prompting the audience to contemplate character and theme rather than simply providing a neatly-resolved conclusion.

Intellect vs. Entertainment
Shaw diverged from the prevailing intellectual principle of his era, "art for art's sake," and the popular belief that theater's sole purpose was to entertain. He refused to write a single sentence solely for art or entertainment, instead advocating for a theater that addressed social issues. Edward Wagenknecht, in A Guide to Bernard Shaw, wrote that Shaw's plays "are not plays: they are tracts in dramatic form." He echoed the common perception of Shaw's works as intellectual exercises, stating that Shaw "has created one great character—G.B.S. [George Bernard Shaw]—and in play after play he performs infinite variations upon it." Thus, Shaw was seen as succeeding despite his dramatic technique, rather than because of it. Wagenknecht added, "it is amazing that a man whose theory of art is so patently wrong should have achieved such a place as Shaw has won."

Although Shaw's plays often leaned more towards ideological discussion than dramatic tension, he succeeded because he understood what made a play theatrical. He wrote brilliant dialogue and created rich, multifaceted characters at the heart of philosophically complex dramas. Some of his greatest character creations, especially the women, include Major Barbara, Saint Joan, and Liza Doolittle. Furthermore, Shaw's deep commitment to social improvement did not prevent him from having a sharp sense of humor. This additional element of his dramatic technique helped his plays, particularly Pygmalion, bridge the gap between popular and intellectual art.

Romance
By labeling Pygmalion a romance (with the subtitle "A Romance in Five Acts"), Shaw was referring to a long-standing literary genre, typically not used in theatre, which Pygmalion only partially fits. Shaw intended to provoke thought by assigning this designation to his play. Contrary to the misinterpretation by many of Shaw's contemporaries, the term romance does not indicate a romantic relationship between Liza and Higgins. Since the Middle Ages, romances have been characterized by their exotic and exaggerated narratives, as well as their idealized characters and themes. Shaw whimsically suggests Pygmalion is a romance due to the nearly magical transformations within the play and the aspirational qualities of the characters.

1910s: Women in Britain are denied the right to vote, and their access to education and employment remains significantly restricted.

Today: Since 1928, all women over 21 have been granted the right to vote in Britain. While women's direct participation in government is still less than men's, Margaret Thatcher's election as Prime Minister in 1979 was a notable milestone. Women gained full admission to Oxford in 1920 and to Cambridge University in 1948. The proportion of women in the workforce has grown substantially since the early 20th century, but their pay and job opportunities still lag behind those of men. The Equal Pay Act of 1970 and other initiatives have aimed to address these disparities. The assumption that a woman's primary role is domestic work is no longer widespread.

1910s: As industrialization and legislative reforms begin to diversify society, Britain remains rigidly hierarchical, with a tradition of a landed aristocracy and a structured social pyramid. In 1911, the royally-appointed House of Lords' ability to veto legislation from the democratically-elected House of Commons is reduced to a power to delay it.

Today: The political influence of royalty and the nobility has significantly diminished due to legislative reforms. Although noble titles persist, British society is now more stratified by wealth than by rank. The middle class expanded considerably over the century, with notable growth in economic indicators such as home ownership. However, stark divisions between the rich and poor still exist. The rise of technical institutes, or "polytechnics," and the expansion of the university system after World War II have greatly increased opportunities for higher education.

1910s: Despite the promotion of a standard "Queen's English" starting in the Victorian era, the British Isles, including London, exhibit a wide range of spoken English dialects. Immigration waves, including the Irish in the 1830s, Germans in the 1840s, Scandinavians in the 1870s, and Eastern Europeans in the 1880s, further diversified the British population and its varieties of English.

Today: The cultural diversity of England, especially in London and major cities, has been further enriched by 20th-century immigration from Britain's former colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, the Indian subcontinent, and the Far East, adding to the variety of English dialects.

1910s: Europe is ravaged by the 8.5 million dead and 21 million wounded in "the Great War" (World War I), with unprecedented levels of civilian casualties. Britain, along with other nations, endured the most severe physical, economic, and psychological impacts in its history.

Today: The looming threat of civilian casualties has made it clear that modern warfare could jeopardize the nation's future. This concern has intensified since the end of World War II due to the menace of nuclear annihilation. Compared to the early 20th century, people now view war and the need to prevent it as a personal responsibility, frequently attempting to influence government policies to avoid conflict. Shaw's anti-war stance, considered somewhat radical in his time, has become far more prevalent.

Pygmalion was transformed into a film produced by Gabriel Pascal and directed by Anthony Asquith and Leslie Howard. The movie featured Howard and Wendy Hiller and was released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1938. It won Academy Awards for Shaw's screenplay and for the adaptation by Ian Dalrymple, Cecil Lewis, and W. P. Lipscomb.

Pygmalion was also adapted for American television by George Schaefer for the Hallmark Hall of Fame series in 1963. This version starred Julie Harris and James Donald, with the adaptation written by Robert Hartung.

The play has been produced in audio formats as well. In 1972, Peter Wood directed an audio recording featuring Michael Redgrave, Donald Pleasence, and Lynn Redgrave (Caedmon TRS 354). In 1974, an audio version was created in collaboration with the British Council, starring Alec McCowen and Diana Rigg (Argo SAY 28).

Pygmalion was also turned into the musical My Fair Lady by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe. The original cast recording was released in 1959, featuring Rex Harrison, Julie Andrews, and Stanley Holloway (CK 2015 Columbia).

My Fair Lady was made into a film in 1964, produced by Jack L. Warner and directed by George Cukor. The movie starred Audrey Hepburn as Liza, with Rex Harrison reprising his stage role as Higgins. It was nominated for twelve Academy Awards and won eight, becoming a classic in the musical film genre.

Sources
Berst, Charles A. Bernard Shaw and the Art of Drama, University of Illinois Press (Urbana), 1973, pp. 197-218.

Further Reading
Bentley, Eric, Bernard Shaw, 1856-1950, amended edition, New Directions, 1957.
Although Bentley's book, initially released in 1947, is not overly flattering, Shaw regarded it as "the best book written about himself as a dramatist." Bentley explains that his dual purpose is "to disentangle a credible man and artist from the mass of myth that surrounds him, and to discover the complex component parts of his 'simplicity.'" Pygmalion is examined in depth on pages 119-126 and elsewhere throughout the book.

Crane, Milton. "Pygmalion: Bernard Shaw's Dramatic Theory and Practice" in Publications of the Modern Language Association, Vol. 66, no 6, December 1951, pp. 879-85.
Crane starts by questioning whether Shaw's approach to drama was traditional or innovative. Central to this discussion is Ibsen, whom Shaw praised for creating plays with open-ended conclusions and "discussion," rather than resolving the dramatic situation in the "well-made play" style popular at the time. Crane argues that Ibsen did not introduce a completely new innovation but rather modified existing forms and suggests a similar case for Shaw. Despite Shaw's avoidance of a romantic ending in Pygmalion, Crane challenges the notion that Shaw was primarily a thinker using drama for rhetorical purposes. Instead, Shaw was deeply committed to his characters' lives and destinies, underscoring a fundamental "conventionality" in his technique.

Dukore, Bernard F. "The Director As Interpreter: Shaw's Pygmalion" in Shaw, Vol. 3, 1983, pp. 129-47.
This three-part article first examines "Shaw's concept of the question of directorial interpretation"; then explores Shaw's own directorial interpretation of Pygmalion during its London premiere and subsequent productions; and finally, discusses the revisions Shaw made to Pygmalion based on his directing experiences. Dukore illustrates the distinct separation Shaw maintained between "Playwright Shaw" and "Director Shaw": instead of explaining the ideas in his play in a literary way, Shaw assisted his actors practically in developing their performances. Often, these actors provided Shaw with new insights into his own characters. "While he recognized that there are a variety of appropriate ways to interpret any well-written role," Shaw also "rejected what he considered inappropriate interpretations."

Evans, T. R., editor. Shaw: The Critical Heritage, Routledge & Kegan Paul (London), 1976.
This invaluable collection includes 135 contemporary writings on Shaw's plays: reviews, essays, letters, and other materials. Organized roughly in chronological order and grouped by play, these items "give a continuing picture of the changing and developing reaction to Shaw's dramatic work." Pygmalion is discussed on pages 223-29.

Harvey, Robert C. "How Shavian is the Pygmalion We Teach?" in English Journal, Vol. 59, 1970, pp. 1234-38.
This article, written by a former high school English teacher, begins by noting that Shaw adamantly refused to allow his plays to be included in school textbooks during his lifetime: "My plays were not designed as instruments of torture," he humorously remarked. Harvey acknowledges that despite Shaw's objections, there are significant benefits for students in reading his works in an academic setting. However, he points out that the play is often used to reinforce grammar lessons, promoting the idea that, like Liza, students can succeed if they learn to speak "properly." Harvey argues that the true value of the play for students lies in understanding its literary intricacies. He believes the play should highlight "the social importance of all varieties of language ... the equality of every dialect," rather than being used "to forge the very chains [Shaw] wrote the play to break."

Henderson, Archibald. George Bernard Shaw: Man of the Century, Appleton-Century-Crofts (New York), 1956.
This is the final, comprehensive book by Shaw's "official" biographer, incorporating extensive material from his previous works. Henderson studied Shaw directly and wrote about him for over fifty years.

Hill, Eldon C. George Bernard Shaw, Twayne (Boston), 1978.
This biography and critical analysis is intended for the general reader, not the Shaw specialist, and aims to provide an understanding of Shaw's life and work. Pygmalion is discussed in detail on pages 118-21.

Huggett, Richard. The Truth about Pygmalion, Heinemann (London), 1969.
This study, focusing mainly on Mrs. Patrick Campbell, the actress who first portrayed Liza in the London premiere, is the result of three years of research into the play and its performances.

Kaufman, R. J., editor. G B. Shaw: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall (Englewood Cliffs, NJ), 1965.
Although none of the essays focus exclusively on Pygmalion, the subjects of these collected studies intersect significantly with issues in the play. Noteworthy contributions include a brief, thought-provoking piece by Bertolt Brecht, highlighting Shaw's influence on his work. Brecht remarks on Shaw's view of society, "it should be clear by now that Shaw is a terrorist. The Shavian terror is an unusual one, and he employs an unusual weapon—that of humor." In "Born to Set It Right. The Roots of Shaw's Style," Richard M. Ohmann explores the development of Shaw's role as a social critic, "the critic of things as they are.'' Eric Bentley's "The Making of a Dramatist" examines the formative years 1892-1903 in Shaw's life.

MacCarthy, Desmond. Shaw. The Plays, Newton Abbott, 1951.
Originally published as a series of essays from 1907 to 1950, this book provides a unique opportunity to trace the evolution of a specific viewpoint on Shaw's extensive career. Pygmalion is discussed in detail on pages 108-13.

Miller, Jane M. "Some Versions of Pygmalion" in Ovid Renewed: Ovidian Influences on Literature and Art from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century, edited by Charles Martindale, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Jane M. Miller's study explores Ovid's rendition of the Pygmalion myth, including potential antecedents, and its impact on subsequent works. Miller emphasizes the sexual nuances of the Pygmalion-Galatea relationship in Ovid's narrative, suggesting possible ramifications for Shaw's adaptation. She categorizes the various versions of Pygmalion into two main types: historical, which involve social transformation and often include "an element of social comment" (placing Shaw's Pygmalion in this category); and mystical, which delve into "love as a divine experience." Miller identifies Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale as an early mystical interpretation, noting the prevalence of this form in the nineteenth century. She concludes that the "historicist" versions, including Shaw's, are "interesting products of their time but lack the vitality of the Ovidian original."

Muggleston, Lynda. "Shaw, Subjective Inequality, and the Social Meanings of Language in Pygmalion" in Review of English Studies: A Quarterly Journal of English Literature and the English Language, Vol. 44, no. 175, August, 1993, pp. 373-85.
Lynda Muggleston provides an in-depth analysis of the social significance of Pygmalion's exploration of accent and pronunciation as indicators "not only of social status but also of social acceptability." While some linguistic terminology might challenge readers unfamiliar with it, the core argument is clear: Shaw opposed the notion that upper-class individuals were inherently superior, demonstrating that social judgments are based on superficial and subjective traits like speech. Pygmalion emerges as a "paradigm of social mobility," showcasing the possibility of social change and serving as "a paean to inherent equality," arguing that a person's worth is separate from their social acceptability.

Quinn, Martin. "The Informing Presence of Charles Dickens in Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion" in the Dickensian, Vol. 80, no. 3, Autumn, 1984, pp. 144-50.
Martin Quinn's article explores numerous connections between Pygmalion and various works by Dickens. Quinn asserts that Dickens "entered Shaw's life early and completely and was always readily accessible in Shaw's thoughts or speech." He points out that Dickens was particularly influential for Shaw when writing Pygmalion in 1912, as Shaw was simultaneously drafting an introduction to Dickens's novel Hard Times. Dickens's influence was "pervasive" throughout Shaw's career. Quinn's article is valuable for documenting Shaw's extensive reading habits and for highlighting Dickens's role among the dramatic artists who significantly influenced Shaw, alongside Shakespeare, Moliere, and Ibsen.

Shaw Bulletin, Shaw Review, Shaw: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies, The Shavian
These are the publications of the Shaw Society of America (The Shaw Bulletin, 1952-1958; Shaw Review, 1951-1980; and Shaw Annual, 1981-present) and the Shaw Society, London (The Shavian, 1953-present). These journals offer extensive coverage on all topics related to Shaw's work. For more details, refer to their title and subject indexes.

Small, Barbara J. "Shaw on Standard Stage Speech" in Shaw Review, Vol. 22, 1979, pp. 106-13.
This concise yet insightful study explores Shaw's interest in diction and stage speech. Although not exclusively about Pygmalion, it draws connections between Higgins and Shaw's ideals of spoken language. "Shaw was preoccupied with the dearth of good standard speech on the English stage," Small wrote. "Good diction was, for Shaw, associated with fine acting." Shaw did not blame individuals for poor pronunciation; in his preface to Pygmalion, he criticizes the issues arising from English not being phonetically spelled. Shaw tackled these broader issues through his own phonetic system and other methods, but he despised pretension in individuals. "An honest slum dialect" was preferable to him "than the attempts of phonetically untaught persons to imitate the plutocracy."

Wagenknecht, Edward. A Guide to Bernard Shaw, Russell & Russell (New York), 1929.
This study was written when Shaw was still alive and at the height of his career, having won the Nobel Prize just a few years earlier. Wagenknecht stated that the goal of his book is expository rather than critical: "to gather together... all the information which, in my judgment, the student or general reader needs to have in mind in order to read Shaw's plays intelligently." While it has been largely superseded by later works, it remains a significant historical document.