Historical Context
The Industrial Revolution
The early twentieth century was a time of great change for America. The
Industrial Revolution was in full swing and great numbers of people were moving
from rural areas into cities to take advantages of the job opportunities
created by new technologies and industry. Many inventions had come about during
the previous half-century and many were still being developed. This time period
saw the introduction of the sewing machine (1846), the telephone (1877), the
phonograph (1877), the cash register (1879), and the adding machine (1885), to
name a few. These inventions would work their way into the life of American
industry, causing an explosion of production and manufacturing. Unfortunately,
it also caused a dramatic and rapid population growth in many American cities,
which resulted in poor living conditions, including terrible overcrowding and
pollution. A vast increase in the immigrant population also added to the
problem. Although conditions were often harsh, many people still saw America as
a land of opportunity and wanted to take advantage of the work that was
available. Factory owners also took advantage of the situation, making
employees labor in terrible conditions for long hours with little pay and no
benefits. It is important to remember that at this time there was no minimum
wage law, no child labor laws, and no regulation of the length of a working
day. Sometimes children as young as six years old labored six days a week for
fourteen hours a day in deplorable conditions. Because of this mistreatment of
workers, unions sprang up and many reformers called for legislation to protect
workers’ rights.
Civil Rights
The Civil War ended in 1865. While African Americans were granted citizenship,
prejudice and bigotry against them still existed. In 1896 the U. S. Supreme
Court upheld segregation in Plessy vs. Ferguson, maintaining that
separate-but-equal treatment of African Americans was still allowable under the
law. There was much hostility between the races and the lynching of blacks was
not an uncommon occurrence. Black activists began to call for better
conditions, and in 1909 the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) was created. Women were also fighting for their rights at this
time. In most states, they had not yet earned the right to vote. Consequently,
many women’s organizations sprang up to address this problem. Women suffragists
organized and created a strong movement advocating voting rights for women.
They sometimes delivered their message through civil disobedience and
demonstrations and were often arrested as a result. However, their work finally
paid off. The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which gave women the
right to vote, was finally passed in 1919.
Politics and Reform
In 1908 William Howard Taft defeated William Jennings Bryan for the presidency of the United States. During his campaign, Taft promised to revise the tariff law, and upon election he immediately set out to do this. He called for a special session of Congress and eventually signed a tariff bill that turned out to be an abysmal failure. While Taft himself was extremely pleased with the bill, many in his party were not. He alienated a large faction of Republicans and seriously damaged his efficacy as president. The progressives in the party were particularly angered and began vehemently opposing Taft’s policies. This secured his overwhelming defeat in the following presidential elec- tion of 1912. Overall in America, things were moving and changing so fast during this time period that it was difficult for politicians or the general citizenry to get a handle on them. The influx of immigration, the explosion of production, and quick changes in the...
(This entire section contains 638 words.)
Unlock this Study Guide Now
Start your 48-hour free trial and get ahead in class. Boost your grades with access to expert answers and top-tier study guides. Thousands of students are already mastering their assignments—don't miss out. Cancel anytime.
Already a member? Log in here.
demographics of American society spawned numerous problems. These conditions, however, also created a generation of reformers who tried to propel the United States into a more enlightened and reasonable attitude. They longed for a strong and fair democracy that would afford great opportunities for all of its citizens.
Literary Style
Narrative
In The Promise of American Life, Croly presents his political ideas in
the form of a narrative. He relates the political history of the United States
and of several European nations as a story. He also tells the stories of a
large number of statesman who have been influential throughout the course of
American politics. In putting forth his ideas in the form of a story, one might
think it would make Croly’s book more accessible to the average reader.
Unfortunately, this is not the case.
Complex Sentence Structure
Croly’s dense sentence structure serves to muddy the story line, making it a
difficult text to work through. Even political analysts find the stories and
arguments presented in Croly’s work complicated. In his article for
Society, Sidney A. Pearson notes, ‘‘[I]t is a difficult work to read.’’
This may have been one of the contributing factors that kept it from a larger
readership when it was originally published. In fact, during Croly’s lifetime,
only about 7,500 copies of the book were sold. In his writing, Croly rarely
uses simple, declarative sentences. Instead, his prose is filled with
interjections, clauses, and sub-clauses, a fact that several critics have
commented upon. In his article on Croly’s book for The Public Interest,
Wilfred M. McClay notes, ‘‘[I]ts 454 pages contain more than their fair share
of ponderous, murky passages.’’
Vocabulary and Terminology
Within the narrative itself, Croly does an excellent job of defining the
vocabulary and political concepts used in The Promise of American Life.
For example, the student who may not be familiar with terms such as
‘‘Hamiltonian’’ and ‘‘Jeffersonian’’ is provided with a thorough discussion of
each before Croly goes on to use these concepts as a basis for his argument.
Croly also includes discussions of terms such as ‘‘Jacksonian,’’ ‘‘Democracy,’’
‘‘Whigs,’’ and ‘‘Federalism.’’ In addition to the explanation of terms used,
Croly includes informative portraits of the major political figures who play a
central role in his theories. By including this extensive background
information and a thorough discussion of the political terms used, Croly makes
the vocabulary in his text accessible to students who may have only a
rudimentary knowledge of political history and terminology.
Compare and Contrast
1900s: The Model T is introduced by Henry Ford at a time when very few people in America own a car.
Today: There are many makes and models of automobiles available. Almost everyone in America learns to drive.
1900s: The first daily comic strip ‘‘Mr. Mutt’’ (later ‘‘Mutt and Jeff’’ ) appears in the San Francisco Chronicle.
Today: Daily comic strips are a regular feature of many newspapers. They have become an integral part of popular culture, and many have been made into animated series for television.
1900s: The first coast-to-coast crossing of America by car is achieved. It takes sixty-five days.
Today: People can travel across America in a few hours in jet planes.
1900s: The first regular cinema is established in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Today: Moviegoers can choose from dozens of movies at huge multiplex cinemas. Going to the cinema is now a traditional American pastime. People can also either rent or buy movies on videotape or DVD disc and view these movies in their own homes.
1900s: There are 46 states in the union, and the population of the United States is over 76 million people.
Today: There are 50 states in the union, and the population of the United States is approximately 286.5 million people.
1900s: Women do not gain the right to vote until 1919 and are primarily expected to stay home and take care of the family.
Today: Many women hold political office or pursue careers. Women try to balance work and family.
1900s: In 1906, Theodore Roosevelt takes the first trip outside the United States by a president in office. He visits the Canal Zone in Central America.
Today: The President of the United States makes numerous trips worldwide during the term of office to meet with other national leaders and to act as a goodwill ambassador for the United States. He also welcomes world leaders to the White House.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Croly, Herbert, The Promise of American Life, Capricorn Books, 1964.
Geoghegan, Thomas, The Secret Lives of Citizens: Pursuing the Promise of American Life, Pantheon Books, 1998, pp. 229–33.
Judis, John B., ‘‘Herbert Croly’s Promise,’’ in the New Republic, Vol. 201, No. 19, November 6, 1989, pp. 19–22.
McClay, Wilfred M., ‘‘Croly’s Progressive America,’’ in The Public Interest, Fall 1999, p. 56.
Pearson, Sidney A., Jr., ‘‘Herbert Croly and Liberal Democracy,’’ in Society, Vol. 35, No. 5, July–August 1998, pp. 62–71.
Postrel, Virginia I., ‘‘The Croly Ghost,’’ in Reason, Vol. 29, No. 7, December 1997, pp. 4–6.
Stettner, Edward A., Shaping Modern Liberalism: Herbert Croly and Progressive Thought, University Press of Kansas, 1993, pp. 33, 76.
Further Reading
Conklin, Groff, The New Republic Anthology 1915–1935, Dodge Publishing
Co., 1936. The New Republic Anthology is a collection of the best essays from
the first two decades of the periodical founded by Herbert Croly. The book
includes a wide array of political and social commentary, as well as providing
a great snapshot of the time period.
Fink, Leon, Major Problems in the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era, D.C. Heath & Co., 1993. This book combines primary source documents with commentary about the issues facing America from 1887 to 1920.
Forcey, Charles, The Crossroads of Liberalism, Oxford University Press, 1961. Forcey profiles three political journalists of the progressive era: Herbert Croly, Walter Weyl, and Walter Lippman.
Olson, James S., Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America, Greenwood Press, 2001. This reference book offers in-depth coverage of the economic, political, and social developments of the Industrial Revolution in the United States from 1750 to 1920.