Prometheus Bound

by Aeschylus

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Places Discussed

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Scythian mountaintop

Scythian mountaintop. All the action of this play takes place atop an unnamed mountain on the edge of the Greek world—probably in the Caucasus mountains in what is now Armenia. The remote location emphasizes the isolation of the Titan Prometheus, who is bound to this mountain as punishment for his crimes against the chief god, Zeus, as the ruler of the universe.

Ocean

Ocean. Mythical great sea that the ancient Greeks believed surrounded a saucer-shaped world. In this play, Ocean is personified in the god Ocean(os), who visits Prometheus on his mountaintop but refuses to ally himself with his fellow Titan. As the daughters of Ocean, the chorus of Oceanids are also identified with this body of water. Unlike their father, the Oceanids decide to cast their fate with that of Prometheus.

*Argos

*Argos. Ancient Greek city located in the northeastern part of the Peloponnesian Peninsula, in which the play’s only mortal character, Io, was born. Aeschylus’s references to this unfortunate woman’s homeland provided his Greek audience with a geographical and human framework for this otherwise exotic play. Through Io and her Greek heritage, the audience may not only sympathize more strongly with Prometheus, who, like Io, is a victim of Zeus, but they can also take pride in the play’s prediction that Io’s descendants will eventually return to Greece and that one of them, Heracles, will eventually free Prometheus from his bondage.

Tartarus

Tartarus. Greek underworld, to which Prometheus and the chorus descend at the end of the play. The location is intended by Zeus as further punishment of the recalcitrant Titan and the completion of his isolation from the world.

Historical Context

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Aeschylus was born in 525 B.C. near Athens, at a time when the city was considered a minor city-state under the rule of the tyrant Hippias. In 510 B.C., a reformer named Clisthenes overthrew Hippias and transformed the government into a republic, which was democratically managed by the elite. These reforms reduced the influence of the nobility and allowed landowners who were not of noble birth to take part in governance. Although tensions between the nobility and the common people, known as the demos (giving rise to the term democracy), persisted, Athens evolved into a well-administered city-state with an active and informed citizenry.

The citizens of Athens also proved to be capable soldiers, fighting valiantly against the Persian Empire's invasion. Athens and the Greeks achieved victories over the Persians, both on land at Marathon in 490 B.C. and at sea at Salamis in 480 B.C., despite being outnumbered.

Athens's triumph in the Persian Wars led to its designation as the capital of the Delian League, an alliance of Greek city-states. This period of peace and prosperity ushered in a cultural renaissance that is rarely matched in history. Athens became one of the world's foremost cultural and commercial hubs. The following century, often referred to as the Greek Golden Age, featured eminent dramatists like Sophocles and Aristophanes, along with philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Greek tragedies, including those written by Aeschylus, were staged in Athens during the Great Dionysia, an annual religious festival honoring the god Dionysus, held in early spring. The festival began with the removal of a statue of Dionysus from his temple, which was then carried in a procession to the countryside before being brought back to Athens. The festival continued with four days of performances, including three days of tragedies and one day of comedies. These tragedies were chosen through a contest among competing playwrights, a contest Aeschylus won thirteen times. Each victorious playwright...

(This entire section contains 681 words.)

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presented a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a satyr play, with performances starting in the morning and continuing for most of the day.

The entire city of Athens participated in the festivities. A local magistrate organized the procession and selected the playwrights for the competition. Wealthy citizens were appointed to fund the masks and costumes and to choose a chorus. Sponsors might also have influenced the selection of contest judges and the plays chosen for competition, although the playwright was responsible for his cast. Citizen judges were sworn to remain unbiased, and authorities imposed strict penalties for any misconduct during the celebration.

In Athens, theatrical performances were held outdoors in a massive theater built on the slopes of the Acropolis. To visualize this theater, imagine a large, semi-circular fan. At the center of this semi-circle was the orchestra, where actors performed, along with an altar. Behind the orchestra stood a stage building known as the skene, where actors put on masks and costumes. The front of the skene could display stage sets depicting temples or landscapes. Audience seating, which could accommodate up to 15,000 people, fanned out around the orchestra. Women and children were permitted to attend but might have been seated separately from the men.

The theatre festivals began in the sixth century, featuring individual and choral songs along with dancing. Thespis is credited with the first tragedy in 536-533 B.C., which included a Chorus of possibly a dozen men and a single actor. Tragic theatre evolved with Aeschylus, who brought in a second actor, and further developed with Sophocles, who added a third. Actors wore masks and tunics, likely colored to signify their roles (such as mourners in black, priests in white, and kings in purple). They needed powerful voices to be heard throughout the large theater and the skill to portray multiple characters since each actor took on several roles per play.

As the center of the Delian League, Athens quickly became the most significant city in Greece, serving as an intellectual, cultural, and commercial hub. The Great Dionysia festival attracted audiences from across the Mediterranean, with attendees ranging from commoners to nobles and from merchants to ambassadors.

Literary Style

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Chorus
In Greek tragedies, the chorus is typically made up of around a dozen men who provide commentary and interpretation of the on-stage events, highlighting the play's central themes and conflicts. They often represent the audience's perspective. For instance, the Oceanides respond to Prometheus and Io in a manner similar to how the audience might react, posing questions and expressing emotions that viewers are likely to experience. The Chorus delivered their lines through song and dance, though the original music and choreography have not survived.

Tragedy
As defined in Aristotle's Poetics, a tragedy involves a noble hero whose downfall is caused by a tragic flaw or mistake, known as hamartia. In the case of Prometheus, his affection for humanity can be seen as the trait that leads to his downfall, as it drives him to defy Zeus and challenge his supremacy. Prometheus displays a sense of hubris, or excessive pride, believing he knows better than Zeus, even though his compassion for humanity might be justified, and his desire for vengeance against Zeus.

Hamartia
In tragic narratives, hamartia refers to the action or incident that triggers the protagonist's downfall. In Prometheus Bound, the Titan's defiance of Zeus by bestowing fire upon humanity initiates the tragic sequence of events, resulting in his own imprisonment.

Catharsis
At the conclusion of a well-crafted tragedy, the audience experiences catharsis, a release of emotional tension, having felt both pity and fear—pity for the character enduring the tragic outcome and fear that a similar fate could befall them. This emotional release may be felt in response to Tetralogy.

Tetralogy
During the annual dramatic competitions in Athens, known as the Dionysia, which honored the god Dionysus, victorious playwrights presented a tetralogy. This consisted of four interconnected dramatic pieces, typically including three tragedies and one satyr play.

Satyr Play
A satyr play is a comedic performance that accompanies three tragedies. It often parodies the same myths or legends depicted in the tragedies, providing a humorous contrast to the more serious themes.

Compare and Contrast

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525-456 B.C.: In 510 B.C., Clisthenes, a political reformer, overthrows the tyrant Hippias and establishes a republic in Athens governed by popular democracy.

Today: Democracy, in its many forms, remains one of the most significant philosophies in global governance. Whether direct, representative, presidential, or parliamentary, all these democratic concepts trace their origins back to the Attic republic.

525-456 B.C.: As the capital of the Delian League, Athens transforms into a hub for commerce and culture, attracting visitors and residents from across the known world. Teachers, artists, philosophers, and religious leaders convene at public forums to exchange their ideas and opinions.

Today: American society reflects Athenian values, emphasizing freedom of speech and religion, and embracing the power of diversity and multiculturalism.

525-456 B.C.: Theatre in Athens primarily revolves around a religious festival honoring the god Dionysus. Large outdoor theatres accommodate up to 15,000 people during festivals that span several days.

Today: Theatre has largely become a secular form of entertainment, with plays performed in much smaller venues than those in ancient Greece. Drama festivals still occur, but they are overshadowed by larger events featuring musical performers.

525-456 B.C.: In classical Greece, education is reserved for the upper and upper-middle-class men. Typically, they study with tutors at home before attending academies like those run by Plato and Aristotle.

Today: In America, compulsory education up to high school is available to all citizens, offering opportunities for both men and women. Additionally, there are prospects for further education through college attendance.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources
Berlin, Normand. The Secret Cause: A Discussion of Tragedy, University of Massachusetts Press, 1981.

Further Reading
Bullfinch, Thomas. Bullfinch's Mythology, Avenel, 1979.
This is an excellent, though somewhat traditional, compendium of classical mythology, Arthurian legends, and various other myths and legends.

Fitts, Dudley, editor. Greek Plays in Modern Translation, Dial, 1947.
This book features a collection of Greek plays, including King Oedipus translated by William Butler Yeats, and Prometheus Bound. It concludes with brief but insightful commentary on the plays.

Havelock, E. A. The Crucifixion of Intellectual Man, Beacon, 1951.
This is a lively discussion of Aeschylus's tragedy, ending with a particularly valuable appendix on Hesiod's Theogony, Aeschylus's mythology, and the lost plays of the Prometheus cycle.

Herington, John. Aeschylus, Yale University Press, 1986.
This book provides in-depth background on Aeschylus's perspective, historical context, and Greek theatrical traditions, with a chapter dedicated to each surviving play, including Prometheus Bound.

Hogan, James C. A Commentary on the Complete Greek Tragedies: Aeschylus, University of Chicago Press, 1984.
This text offers a thorough introduction to Aeschylus and the Attic theatrical tradition, with detailed, almost line-by-line commentary on Aeschylus's works, including Prometheus Bound. Hogan explains vocabulary and mythology while summarizing the perspectives of many commentators on key texts and critiques.

McCall, Marsh H. Jr., editor. Aeschylus: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, 1972.
This excellent collection of essays explores Aeschylus's major works and his tragic vision, although only one essay is fully devoted to Prometheus Bound.

Scodel, Ruth. Aeschylus, Twayne, 1982.
This book offers extensive information on the playwright's life and Greek culture, discussing all of Aeschylus's plays, with a chapter on Prometheus Bound. It also features a brief analysis of contemporary Greek scientific and medical knowledge in relation to Prometheus's "condition."

Scully, James and C. J. Herington. Aeschylus's Prometheus Bound, Oxford University Press, 1975.
In addition to a translation of the play, this work includes a strong introduction and an important appendix with existing fragments of the lost sequels to Prometheus Bound.

Thomson, George. "Prometheia" in Aeschylus: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, 1972, pp. 124-47.
This essay provides significant background on Hesiod's version of the Prometheus myth and the adaptations Aeschylus made in his dramatic retelling. It also offers detailed material on the Prometheus cycle and discusses the meaning of Prometheus Bound within the context of the lost plays.

Thomson, George. Prometheus Bound, Cambridge University Press, 1932.
Besides offering an edition of the play, Thomson provides background and reference material that places the play within the framework of Greek history and philosophy.

Bibliography

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Grene, David. “Introduction to Prometheus Bound.” In Aeschylus: The Complete Greek Tragedies, edited by David Grene and Richmond Lattimore. Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Reviews eighteenth century criticism of Prometheus Bound and compares it to Aristotle’s Poetics (c. 334/323 b.c.e.). Discusses problems with the play, including an episodic plot, the improbable and extravagant characters, and the uncouth diction.

Kitto, H. D. F. Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study. London: Methuen, 1970. Dates Prometheus Bound in the category of Old Tragedy. One chapter offers a detailed examination of the play.

Kitto, H. D. F. Poiesis: Structure and Thought. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Discusses what is known as Farnall’s Dilemma: that Aeschylus was writing about Zeus in a derogatory sense and that the playwright should have been prosecuted for blasphemy. Because he was not, he could not have written Prometheus Bound.

Podlecki, Anthony J. The Political Background of Aeschylean Tragedy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966. Discusses similarities between Prometheus Bound and the Oresteia (458 b.c.e.).

Stanford, William Bedell. Aeschylus in His Style: A Study in Language and Personality. Dublin: Dublin University Press, 1942. Claims that Aeschylus borrowed language in Prometheus Bound from two types of source, one literary and the other colloquial. Designed to help students better understand the language of Aeschylus.

Thomson, George. Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origins of Drama. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1968. Presents history and interpretations of the myth of Prometheus; explains how this myth fits into Prometheus Bound.

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