Prometheus Bound

by Aeschylus

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Prometheus

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In Greek cosmology, there are three generations of gods: (1) the primordial deities of Heaven, Earth, and Sky along with the Titans, (2) Kronos, and (3) Zeus and his Olympian pantheon. Prometheus, a figure in these myths, was the offspring of Iapetus, a Titan, and Clymene, an oceanic nymph.

Prometheus played a crucial role in assisting Zeus to triumph over the Titans and helped to resolve disputes among the gods by assigning them distinct domains.

At this time, humanity, which some versions of the myth credit Prometheus with creating, lived in a primitive state devoid of hope. Zeus planned to let humanity die so he could create a new race, but Prometheus took pity on them. He gifted humans with fire, stolen from the heavens. In his monologue, Prometheus explains that fire ushered in technology, astronomy, mathematics, language, agriculture, and medicine, but most importantly, it brought hope. Angered by Prometheus's interference with his plans, Zeus punished him by binding him to a mountain peak, where an eagle would partially devour him each day. Although Prometheus knew how Zeus would eventually fall, he refused to reveal it. Over time, Zeus developed sympathy, while Prometheus gained humility, leading to their reconciliation. Zeus forgave Prometheus and the Titans. In acknowledgment of Zeus's authority, Prometheus traded his metal chains for a chain of flowers.

Characters Discussed

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Prometheus

Prometheus (proh-MEE-thee-uhs), a Titan, the son of Themis (Earth). In the revolt of Zeus against Kronos, he had sided with Zeus and had provided the counsel by which the older gods had been overthrown. Later, he persuaded Zeus to spare humankind, whom Zeus had planned to destroy. He has broken the command of the king of the gods by bringing to humans the gift of fire and instructing them in all the arts and crafts. For this flouting of the will of Zeus, he is carried, a prisoner, by Kratos (Might) and Bia (Force) to a rocky cliff in remote Scythia, there to be fastened by Hephaestus to the crag and to remain bound for eternity. His only comfort in his anguish is his secret foreknowledge of the eventual downfall of Zeus. His knowledge of the future remains with him. He prophesies to Io the torments that await her; tells her that her descendant, Herakles, will finally release him; and declares that Zeus himself will one day be deposed by his own son, whose future identity only Prometheus knows. This secret he refuses to divulge to Hermes, who brings the command of Zeus that Prometheus must reveal this all-important name on pain of even worse torments. Defiant to the last, Prometheus is blasted by the thunderbolt of Zeus and sinks into the underworld as the play ends. Prometheus is depicted in this drama as the embodiment of stubborn resistance against the tyranny of Zeus, willing to bear any punishment rather than submit. To the modern mind, and especially to the writers of the Romantic period, he is the personification of the revolt against tyranny of any sort, the symbol of humanity’s war against the forces of reaction and of the eternal quest for knowledge.

Io

Io (I-oh), the daughter of the river god Inachus. She was beloved by Zeus, who changed her into a heifer to save her from the jealous wrath of Hera. Penetrating her rival’s disguise, Hera sent a gadfly to torment Io throughout the world. Half-crazed with pain, Io has wandered to Scythia, where she finds in Prometheus a fellow sufferer. He prophesies her future adventures and traces her descendants down to Herakles, who will deliver him from his chains.

Hermes

Hermes (HUR -meez),...

(This entire section contains 602 words.)

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the messenger of Zeus, sent to wring from Prometheus the secret of the identity of that son of Zeus who will overthrow his father. In his attitude, Hermes has been called the personification of prudent self-interest. He fails in his errand, for the dauntless Prometheus reviles him as a mere lackey and refuses to divulge the secret.

Hephaestus

Hephaestus (hee-FEHS-tuhs), the god of fire and of metalworking. He has been ordered by Zeus to forge the chains that fasten Prometheus to the rock and to drive an adamantine wedge through his breast. He performs this horrible task reluctantly, bowing only to the superior power of Zeus.

Oceanus

Oceanus (oh-SEE-eh-nuhs), god of the sea. He comes to sympathize with Prometheus and to preach to him the virtue of humility. He even offers to intercede on his behalf with Zeus. Prometheus warns him that, in comforting a rebel, he himself may be charged with rebellion and urges him to depart.

Kratos

Kratos (Might) and

Bia

Bia (Force), brute beings who symbolize the tyranny of Zeus, for they carry out his will. They drag the captive Prometheus to the cliff in Scythia and supervise Hephaestus as he chains the Titan to the rock. Kratos taunts the fallen Titan, reminding him that the name Prometheus—the Contriver—has a terrible irony, for no contrivance can release him.

Other Characters

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Chorus of Oceanids

Earth and Sky are the progenitors of Oceanus and Tethys, who in turn are the parents of the Oceanids. Aeschylus's mythological narrative identifies Prometheus's mother as Earth, making him the Titan uncle to the Oceanids. Like their father Oceanus, they empathize with Prometheus, but with more courage. However, partly due to their fear of Zeus, they disapprove of Prometheus's actions, urging him to seek reconciliation. The Oceanids become fearful of Zeus when they hear about Io's torment, yet they choose to stay with Prometheus at the play's conclusion, even as he is condemned to Tartarus.

Force and Violence

At the beginning of the play, Force and Violence accompany Hephaestus as he chains Prometheus to a peak in the Caucasus Mountains. Force remains unwaveringly loyal to Zeus, showing no compassion for the Titan and respecting only Zeus's absolute power. Force's viewpoint is pragmatic. When Hephaestus expresses regret that his metallurgical skills led Zeus to choose him for this task, Force remains indifferent to such sentiments.

Hermes

The child of Zeus and Maia, Hermes serves as the gods' messenger. He appears at the end of the play, attempting to persuade Prometheus to divulge the secret that could lead to Zeus's downfall, but the Titan refuses. Hermes mocks Prometheus and threatens him with further retribution, but Prometheus dismisses him. Young and inexperienced, Hermes proves to be an ineffective mediator between Zeus and Prometheus, ultimately coming across as juvenile and rash.

Io

Niece to the Chorus, Io is the semi-divine daughter of a river god. Unwillingly caught in Zeus's desires, she suffers persecution from his jealous wife, Hera. She is pursued and watched, first by Argos, whose thousand eyes never rest, and then by a gadfly, believed to be Argos's spirit. Like Prometheus, Io endures the injustice of Zeus's tyranny, despite being innocent of any wrongdoing. Prometheus foretells that one of Io's descendants, Hercules, will avenge her by defeating Zeus and killing the eagle that daily feasts on Prometheus's liver. This prophecy is partially fulfilled: Hercules slays the eagle, but Prometheus and Zeus eventually reconcile, leaving Zeus in power. Io's journey contrasts with Prometheus's immobility, and she appears physically as a half-woman, half-cow.

Ocean

A Titan who governs the watery realms, Ocean is brother to Earth, Prometheus's mother, making him the rebel's uncle and father to the Oceanid chorus. Ostentatious and vain, Ocean offers to mediate with Zeus on Prometheus's behalf, boasting of an influence with Zeus that he does not truly possess. He suggests reconciliation but cowers before Zeus's might. Some critics view him as a source of comic relief. As a bumbling advisor, he is reminiscent of Polonius in Shakespeare's Hamlet.

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