Publication History, Reception, and Legacy

Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice was first published in 1813. It was Austen’s second published novel, following the success of her debut novel, Sense and Sensibility. Pride and Prejudice was well received by the public, receiving three positive reviews within its first month in circulation. It became a fashionable novel amongst the public and cemented Austen’s reputation as a writer, though none of her novels were initially published directly under her name. Writing was not considered a suitable profession for a woman, so Austen’s first novel was published “by a Lady.” Each subsequent novel obliquely credited Austen in reference to her other texts. Pride and Prejudice was published by “the author of Sense and Sensibility.”

Pride and Prejudice has gone on to become one of the most popular and beloved English-language novels of all time. It remains a topic of literary criticism, and it is a mainstay in English curricula. While some critics feel that the fairytale-like quality of the ending lacks realism, others praise the novel’s proto-feminist discourse around women’s education and financial dependence. Austen’s writing style has been frequently and widely emulated. She is often credited with the popularization of free indirect discourse, a literary technique that is ubiquitous in today’s fiction.

First Draft and Title

Though the exact dates are unknown, Austen began work on the manuscript that would later become Pride and Prejudice in the 1790s. It was originally titled First Impressions but was later renamed to reduce potential confusion with other works of the same name. The title is most likely an allusion to Frances Burney’s novel of manners, Cecilia, which Austen referenced in other works as well. It is commonly speculated that the initial draft of First Impressions was an epistolary novel, or a novel comprised of letters and documents rather than exposition. Scholars cite the number of letters that appear in Pride and Prejudice—as well as their bearing on the plot—as evidence of this theory.

Jane Austen's England

Jane Austen's most famous novels, such as Pride and Prejudice, were all written within roughly two decades. These twenty years (1795-1815) were also a time when England was at the pinnacle of its strength. England served as the main defense against French revolutionary zeal and Napoleonic ambitions. The period during which Austen was writing nearly aligns with England's significant military triumphs over Napoleon and the French: the Battle of the Nile, where Admiral Nelson severely weakened the French Mediterranean fleet, and the Battle of Waterloo, where Lord Wellington and his German allies decisively defeated Napoleon, leading to his exile. Despite these significant historical events, the English middle and upper classes—the "landed gentry" depicted in Austen's novels—felt so secure in their righteousness that these events minimally affect Pride and Prejudice.

The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars

The French Revolution spanned from 1789 to 1799, followed by Napoleon's rise to power from 1799 to 1815—eras marked by relentless social change and turmoil. In contrast, England experienced these same periods as times of conservative reaction, resulting in minimal societal change. The British government, under Prime Minister William Pitt, exerted strict control over any ideas or opinions that appeared to support the French revolution. Pitt's administration suspended the right of habeas corpus, allowing indefinite imprisonment without trial. Additionally, it enacted laws against public criticism of government policies and suppressed working-class trade unions. Concurrently, the Industrial Revolution transformed the British economy permanently. It generated the revenue Pitt's government needed to combat Napoleon and created a substantial wealthy class and an even larger middle class. These are the individuals Jane Austen portrays in Pride and Prejudice—the "landed gentry" who acquired their property through their newfound wealth rather than inheritance. They lack the aristocracy's manners and graces and, like the Collinses in Pride and Prejudice, are mainly focused on their own prospects within their limited spheres.

Unlike other Romantic-era authors such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Jane Austen's works are minimally influenced by the French Revolution and its revolutionary rhetoric. Austen's family members actively participated in the war against Napoleon and the French, with two of her brothers rising to the rank of admirals in the Royal Navy. The only reference to war and military life in Pride and Prejudice is the ongoing presence of British soldiers in Meryton, near the Bennet family's estate at Longbourn. Among these soldiers is George Wickham, who later elopes with Lydia Bennet, bringing disgrace upon the family. In the setting of Pride and Prejudice, the soldiers exist merely to provide the younger Bennet daughters with men in uniforms to pursue. Their world is confined to their home, the homes of friends and neighbors, a few prominent resort towns, and, at a distance, the city of London. There is no indication of the revolutionary events unfolding just across the English Channel in France.

English Regency Society

Conversely, contemporary English society is a central theme in Pride and Prejudice. When the novel was published, King George III was suffering from periodic bouts of madness, now believed to be caused by the metabolic disease porphyria, which afflicted his later years. His son, the Prince Regent—who would later become George IV—assumed his powers. The Prince Regent was notorious for his dissolute morals, and his behavior was emulated by many of society's leading figures. Young men often attended universities not to gain knowledge, but to socialize, drink, gamble, race horses, and spend money. The character of George Wickham in Pride and Prejudice epitomizes this type of unprincipled behavior, particularly in his seduction of sixteen-year-old Lydia Bennet. Lydia, in turn, fully embraces Regency culture; her concerns are not about the disgrace brought upon her family, but rather the attractiveness of her husband and the envy of her sisters.

Most "respectable" middle- and upper-class individuals, like Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy, were staunchly against the immorality prevalent in Regency culture. However, they still engaged in the era's fashions, which were heavily influenced by French styles, despite France being at war with England. During the Directory and Consulate periods in France (1794-1804), fashion took cues from the attire of the Roman Republic. The ornate hairstyles and dresses that once defined the French aristocracy before the Revolution were abandoned in favor of simpler clothing. Women, including Elizabeth Bennet, typically wore simple dresses resembling modern nightgowns—loose and flowing, secured with a ribbon just below the bust. Darcy, on the other hand, would have donned a civilian outfit consisting of tight breeches, a ruffled shirt with a meticulously folded neckcloth, and a high-collared jacket. Although these styles initially emerged as a response to the extravagance of early eighteenth-century fashion, they themselves grew increasingly elaborate as the century advanced. This shift was largely driven by the Prince Regent and his impeccably dressed friend, Beau Brummel. Brummel's style, known as "dandyism," embodied the same effortless grace and control seen in many of Austen's protagonists.

The iconic opening line of this novel, "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife," immediately signals that, like other works by Jane Austen, this story revolves around marriage—both as a plot device and a key social institution. Despite its significance, marriage often suffers at the hands of the vulnerable, the superficial, or the selfish. The most crucial marriage in the book is between Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy. However, other marriages are contrasted against theirs to illustrate that not all unions are ideal; many are driven by social and financial considerations.

Examples include the marriage of Elizabeth's sister Jane Bennet to Charles Bingley, which is cordial but involves simpler personalities. Charlotte Lucas's union with Mr. William Collins can be seen as a grim compromise, while Lydia Bennet's marriage to the opportunistic George Wickham is entirely exploitative. This latter marriage gains a semblance of social respectability only because it is financially supported by Darcy. Notably, Wickham's earlier attempt to secure a financial advantage by targeting Darcy's sister Georgiana further undermines the legitimacy of his marriage to Lydia.

These lesser marriages highlight, by contrast, what an ideal marital relationship should be: a partnership between equals who grow and evolve as they confront and resolve human challenges, exemplified in Darcy and Elizabeth's overcoming his pride and her prejudice.

Yet, even in this nearly ideal marriage, economic realities and social snobbery play significant roles. Darcy's initial hesitation due to the Bennets' modest income and lack of social refinement, particularly Mrs. Bennet's awkward manners, tempers his affection for Elizabeth at first. Compounding these issues are Lady Catherine De Bourgh's disapproval of the Bennet family and her intentions for Darcy to marry her own ailing daughter.

These obstacles test the strength of Darcy and Elizabeth's commitment to each other and emphasize the importance of grounding human relationships in something deeper than social conventions and materialistic desires. As in Austen's other novels, the characters are judged by their ability to transcend self-interest with courage and love.

The characters' pursuit of happiness and belonging unfolds in an imperfect world, a reality Jane Austen highlights with her ironic perspective on her society. Wealth is often unfairly distributed and unearned; only "the little people" work for their living. In the setting of Austen's novels, the busiest main characters are typically clergymen or military officers. The only women who engage in paid work are servants. While men can improve their social standing through careers in the clergy or military, marriage is the sole avenue for women to elevate their status. This reality makes Charlotte Lucas's pragmatic decision to marry the unattractive and sanctimonious Mr. Collins more understandable. Despite the social system's unfairness, it allows the compassionate to transcend class distinctions. Darcy exemplifies this by financially supporting Lydia and Wickham's marriage and being kind to his servants. Wickham, on the other hand, is a case of misplaced trust, as he squanders the opportunities provided by the Darcy family's generosity towards his father, their steward.

The Bennet family's immediate financial concern is that their estate, Longbourn, with its annual income of two thousand pounds, is entailed to Mr. Collins. If their daughters do not marry well, they risk becoming homeless or at least facing discomfort after Mr. Bennet's death. Although Mrs. Bennet's blatant husband hunting might make us cringe, she is at least taking action for her family's welfare. Her efforts stand in stark contrast to characters like Wickham, who, despite being given opportunities by a generous employer, squanders his chances and exploits women to secure his financial needs.

In Austen's social world, not all money is viewed equally. Lady Catherine and Darcy belong to the landed gentry, the most socially acceptable among the wealthy. The Bingleys, with an income of twenty thousand pounds from trade, use their old family roots to mask the origin of their wealth. Lady Catherine De Bourgh looks down on the Bennet's in-laws, the Gardiners, for their trade-derived fortune. Edward Gardiner, Mrs. Bennet's brother, exhibits superior manners compared to hers, earning Darcy's respect. Cultivated behavior can significantly soften even the snobbiest characters' attitudes toward earned rather than inherited wealth.

Additional Commentary

Pride and Prejudice contains no violent or explicit scenes, making it suitable for young readers. However, the novel presents as "normal" certain attitudes that differ from contemporary views. The class system enforces unwritten rules about who may marry or socialize with whom. Young readers can benefit from understanding other forms of class discrimination, such as injustice, social unrest, and limited aspirations.

Additionally, the novel does not question or challenge the subordinate position assigned to women in early 19th-century rural life. Mr. Bennet's daughters are unable to inherit his estate and receive less education compared to males of the landed gentry. Women like Charlotte Lucas, at twenty-seven, marry lesser men out of fear of being labeled a "spinster" by the age of thirty. Women cannot work and are thus economically reliant on men. For women, "success" is defined exclusively by marriage and domestic responsibilities—essentially, by what they provide for men. Even within the household—despite Mr. Bennet's weaknesses—the father controls the finances and holds ultimate authority. The fact that Elizabeth is even considered "rebellious" highlights the severe restrictions placed on women; her actions would not be seen as rebellious today.

Teachers and other adults might find it useful to discuss gender roles and sex discrimination with young readers. While Elizabeth has been noted as a pioneer for sexual equality (she tells Mrs. Gardiner that she will marry Wickham or whomever else she chooses), she ultimately conforms to her expected role by the novel's conclusion.

• 1810s: Throughout this decade, Europe was engulfed in warfare due to Napoleon Bonaparte's quest to unify the continent under French rule. Two of Jane Austen's brothers, Frank and Charles, served in the British Navy and participated in the Napoleonic Wars.

  Today: For the first time since the Napoleonic Wars, Europe is contemplating a unified multinational government through the European Union.

• 1810s: In the early 19th century, the education of women was vastly different from that of men. While boys attended boarding schools to study Latin, mathematics, and science, girls were typically educated at home by governesses, focusing on the fine arts, writing, reading, and sewing.

  Today: In 1994 alone, over 125 million women graduated from high school, and around 800,000 were enrolled in colleges and universities. Most American high schools and universities are now coeducational, offering courses that are accessible to both men and women.

• 1810s: In the early 1800s, the scarcity of professional opportunities for women made it difficult for them to be self-supporting. As a result, many women chose marriage over relying on family members for financial support.

  Today: A growing number of American women are choosing to remain single. By 1994, only 59% of women in the United States were married. Additionally, nearly 60% of American women over the age of 16 were employed, either part-time or full-time.