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Aristotle
Hailing from the era between 384 and 322 B.C., Aristotle stands as the third titan among the illustrious trio of Greek philosophers whose profound insights sculpted the bedrock of Western intellectual tradition. Lippmann celebrates Aristotle as a beacon of "well-tested truths," whose sagacious teachings offer wisdom akin to that once provided by religious tenets. Esteemed among the ranks of ascetics, Aristotle champions the pursuit of happiness through self-restraint. In his Ethics, he vividly articulates virtue as a golden mean, a balanced state between the extremes inherent in every human trait. Diverging from the rigid mandates of organized religion, Aristotle’s ideals nurture the education and discipline of the "human will."
Buddha
Lippmann turns his gaze to the Indian sage known as Buddha, or Gautama Buddha, whose life in the fifth or sixth century B.C. gave rise to Buddhism—a spiritual force that swept across Asia. Buddha's enlightenment is heralded as a repository of "well-tested truths," paralleling the wisdom that once emanated from religious doctrine. Within the annals of ascetic philosophy, Buddha stands prominent, propounding a life of moderation as the pathway to "the good life." Lippmann underscores Buddha's dedication to imparting knowledge and self-discipline, steering clear of imposing rigid moral edicts. Rather than expecting adherence from all, Buddha acknowledged that only a select few would embody the ideals he espoused.
Confucius
In 551 B.C., China witnessed the birth of Confucius, a luminary who would become the most venerated thinker across Eastern Asia. Lippmann regards Confucius as a fountain of "well-tested truths," with wisdom replacing the role traditionally held by religious doctrine. Confucius espoused the notion that aligning one's desires with reality is the key to true happiness. Shunning the path of issuing commandments, his teachings focused on personal self-discipline, encouraging individuals to achieve harmony within themselves.
Havelock Ellis
Havelock Ellis (1859–1939), the English essayist and physician, carved a niche with his daring and unorthodox explorations into human sexuality. Lippmann draws upon Ellis's ideas to illuminate the transformative impact of accessible contraception on the evolving sexual morals of the modern era.
Dr. S. Ferenczi
Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933), a Hungarian psychoanalyst closely aligned with Sigmund Freud, offers a psychological perspective on human growth. Lippmann explains Ferenczi’s theories, which delve into the child's developmental journey of reconciling personal desires with the constraints imposed by reality.
Jesus
Among the pantheon of sages, Jesus is revered by Lippmann as a wellspring of "well-tested truths," possessing wisdom once reserved for religious doctrine. Counted among advocates of asceticism, Jesus promoted simplicity as the cornerstone of happiness. Lippmann, however, draws a distinction between Jesus as a teacher of a small circle during his mortal life and the organized "popular religion" of Christianity that flourished long after his passing.
Plato
Plato, who graced the world between 428 and 348 B.C., is celebrated as the second of the trio of Greek philosophers whose profound ideas indelibly shaped Western thought. Lippmann identifies Plato as a wellspring of "well-tested truths," wisdom that echoes the guidance of bygone religious doctrines. Among the sages, Plato is noted for advocating asceticism as a vital ingredient for achieving happiness.
Socrates
Socrates, who lived from 470 to 399 B.C., takes his place as the pioneer among the trio of Greek philosophers whose wisdom cast a lasting influence on Western civilization. Recognized by Lippmann as a custodian of "well-tested truths," Socrates’ teachings substitute the dogma of religious doctrine. He is revered among those who champion asceticism as vital to "the good life." The Phaedo famously elaborates on Socrates’ belief that the human body hinders the philosopher's quest for truth. Furthermore, Lippmann highlights Socrates' emphasis on self-reflection as a means to scrutinize personal motivations.
Spinoza
Spinoza (1632–1677), the Dutch-Jewish philosopher, is renowned for advancing the concepts of seventeenth-century rationalism. Lippmann venerates Spinoza as a source of "well-tested truths," whose wisdom fills the void left by religious doctrine. Among the advocates of asceticism, Spinoza’s insights encourage personal self-discipline over the enforcement of moral edicts.
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