to the lack of translations and the extensive censorship within the U.S.S.R., which persisted for years, there has been limited academic work on the literature emerging from these newly independent countries.

Point of View
Point of view refers to the perspective and sensitivity through which a story is narrated or information is presented. Postcolonial literature often challenges traditional Western perspectives by featuring narrators who represent previously silenced or marginalized groups. Historically, much literature from colonized nations was written from the perspective of the colonizers—typically male. Consequently, postcolonial literature frequently employs narrators who are doubly oppressed, both colonized by "outsiders" and as women. Authors like Silko, Danticat, and Boland, along with many other postcolonial writers, highlight the unique struggles faced by women from colonized countries, as they contend with patriarchal attitudes and institutions from both their oppressors and their own communities.

Narration
Narration involves the method through which a series of events is conveyed. The mode of narration is closely linked to an author’s style and subject matter. Some postcolonial novels narrate events in a relatively straightforward, chronological manner. However, many postcolonial works adopt a postmodern approach to storytelling. In this context, postmodern narration involves using various points of view, multiple narrators, and a fusion of styles and genres to depict events and actions. Rushdie utilizes a form of postmodern narration in Midnight’s Children, as do Danticat in Breath, Eyes, Memory and Silko in Ceremony. Critics often use "Postmodernism" to describe literature and art created after World War II that takes literary techniques to new extremes. Influenced by the brutalities of Nazi atrocities during the war and the threat of nuclear annihilation, much postmodern literature displays a profound pessimism about the human condition. With its hyper self-reflexivity, frequently fragmented and disjointed narrative, and playful use of language, postmodern narration is fitting for postcolonial writers, many of whom aim to subvert colonial representations of their world and traditions.

Setting
Setting refers to the time, place, and cultural context in which a story's action occurs. It includes aspects such as geographic location, characters’ physical and mental environments, cultural attitudes, and the historical period of the action. The setting in postcolonial literature varies widely from country to country and writer to writer. However, many novels are set during the post-independence period of formerly colonized nations. For instance, Kincaid’s A Small Place depicts life in Antigua after it gained self-governance, and Coetzee’s Disgrace is set in post-apartheid South Africa, where power dynamics between whites and blacks are evolving.

Literary Theory
Postcolonial theorists rigorously examine both colonial-era texts and those written after the end of colonialism. The rise in popularity of postcolonial literature can be largely attributed to theorists like Said, Spivak, Fanon, Kwame Anthony Appiah, Homi Bhabha, among others. These scholars elucidate the literature's importance in the context of history, politics, philosophy, and literary traditions, and discuss its relevance in modern society. Many of these theorists hail from postcolonial nations themselves, lending them the credibility of personal experience. For instance, Said is Palestinian, Spivak is from Calcutta, India, and Fanon is from Martinique, a French colony. By questioning the representation of colonial subjects by writers and other figures, these theorists aim to empower both themselves and the literary endeavors of postcolonialists, striving to alter perceptions and thoughts about formerly colonized peoples and countries. The development of postcolonial studies as an academic discipline and the growing interest in postcolonial literature over the past thirty years owe much to these theorists. The formal establishment of postcolonial studies has coincided with the rise of poststructuralist theory, which challenges basic assumptions about human identity, history, language, and truth itself.

Film
As nations gained independence from colonial rule, filmmakers endeavored to portray the experiences of these newly sovereign states and the impacts of independence on individuals and their societies. For example, Deepa Mehta, an Indian director based in Canada, critiques Indian traditions in her films Fire, Earth, and Water (1996–2000). These films aim to demystify the exotic image of India for foreign audiences and scrutinize the politics of sexuality in both pre- and postcolonial India. Another prominent Indian director, Mira Nair, earned international acclaim with her film Salaam, Bombay! (1988), which highlights the poverty and despair of street children in Bombay. Since then, Nair has directed films that explore racial tensions between immigrants and minorities in the United States. In films like Mississippi Masala (1991) and The Perez Family (1993), Nair depicts the dreams and ambitions of people from postcolonial countries and their experiences of facing different forms of oppression in a land they hoped would offer new opportunities. Another Indian filmmaker, Shyam Benegal, creates films that portray the feudal, colonial, and patriarchal structures underlying Indian society. His 1996 film, Making of the Mahatma, focuses on the British colonial rule in South Africa, highlighting Gandhi's formative years. Other directors who explicitly tackle postcolonial themes in their work include Farida Ben Lyazid, Ken Loach, Deepa Mehta, Ketan Mehta, Mira Nair, Peter Ormrod, Horace Ove, Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, and Ousmane Sembene.

Music
When colonizers have governed a nation for extended periods, their influence inevitably permeates the art and music of the colonized societies. The resulting hybrid culture often merges indigenous elements with those of the occupying forces. This fusion of music, which crosses national and cultural boundaries, is frequently termed “World Music.” In The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Concepts, Bruno Nettl identifies three motivational behaviors evident in the music of postcolonial non-Western countries: the first is “the desire to leave traditional culture intact, survival without change”; the second is “simple incorporation of a society into the Western cultural system”; and the third is “the adoption and adaptation of . . . products of Western culture . . . with an insistence that the core of cultural values will not change greatly and does not match those of the West.” Examples of postcolonial music that exhibit cultural hybridity include Aboriginal pop music groups from the 1970s, such as Yothu-Yindi, which fused elements of popular music with tribal ritual songs. In Ethnicity, Identity and Music: The Musical Construction of Place, Martin Stokes discusses how this kind of music often involves the “restructuring of song texts by incorporating a mixture of ritual symbolism and concern with colonial hegemony.” Another example of a hybrid musical form that reflects the migration of peoples across national borders is the work of Indian musician Ravi Shankar, who blended classical Indian music with Western sounds. Shankar gained international fame when he began collaborating with the Beatles’ George Harrison in the 1960s. An album titled Soundz of the Asian Underground features ambient music and hip hop performed by Asian musicians using instruments traditional to their cultures.

1940s–1960s: Many European colonies in Africa achieve independence, including Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Ghana, Guinea, Chad, Benin, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Central African Republic, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Togo, Zaire, Somalia, Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, and Gambia.

Today: Despite their political independence from European powers, several of these nations remain economically dependent on Western countries like the United States. For instance, the Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) sources nearly 14 percent of its production from Nigeria, which relies on oil for 80 percent of its government revenue. However, this reliance on Western capital has led to issues such as corruption, environmental damage, and social unrest among groups like the Ogoni, who accuse Shell of contaminating their land.

1940s–1960s: Numerous colonies in Asia and the Middle East gain independence, including Yemen, Malaysia, Myanmar, India, Pakistan, Kuwait, Israel, and Jordan.

Today: Many of these nations continue to engage in conflicts over territory. For example, India and Pakistan dispute the ownership of the Kashmir region, while Palestinians remain in a violent struggle with Israel for their own state.

1940s–1960s: Several colonies in the Caribbean, Central America, and the South Atlantic gain independence but remain part of the British Commonwealth, including Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Antigua, and Trinidad & Tobago.

Today: Many of these countries, such as Barbados and Jamaica, have become popular tourist destinations for Europeans and Americans. However, a large portion of their native populations still live in poverty.

Breath, Eyes, Memory
In her 1994 novel, Breath, Eyes, Memory, Haitian-born Edwidge Danticat delves into themes of migration, gender, sexuality, and history, which are common in postcolonial literature. The story follows Sophie as she struggles to form an identity amidst diverse languages and cultures, including Creole, French, and English, and to adjust to life in the Haitian diaspora after moving to Brooklyn, New York. Danticat’s focus on women’s experiences positions her as a prominent voice in postcolonial feminism. Breath, Eyes, Memory was selected for Oprah’s Book Club and contributed to Danticat being named one of the Best Young American Novelists by Granta magazine in 1996.

Ceremony
Leslie Marmon Silko’s 1977 novel, Ceremony, is widely regarded as one of the most significant works in Native American literature. The novel celebrates the traditions and myths of the Laguna Pueblo people while exploring the impact of white colonization on Pueblo storytelling. Native Americans, who continue to live under a form of colonial rule (i.e., the United States) but have also achieved a degree of autonomy, hold a unique position in postcolonial discourse.

Decolonizing the Mind
Kenyan author Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s 1986 book, part memoir and part treatise, describes the storytelling traditions of his people and how the British colonial educational system attempted to obliterate the Gikuyu language and culture, effectively colonizing the minds of native Kenyans. Ngugi writes: “I believe that my writing in Gikuyu . . . an African language, is part and parcel of the anti-imperialist struggles of Kenyan and African peoples.”

Disgrace
J. M. Coetzee’s 1999 novel, Disgrace, set in Cape Town, South Africa, explores themes of racial justice, crime, revenge, and land rights in post-apartheid South Africa. Apartheid refers to the 317 laws enacted by Dr. D. F. Malan’s nationalist party in the late 1940s and early 1950s, which legally reinforced existing racial segregation and the economic, political, and social domination by whites. The narrative centers on David Lurie, a divorced white university professor who is dismissed from his job for sexual harassment. Shortly after moving to his lesbian daughter Lucy’s rural farm, Lucy is raped by local black men. The story focuses on Lurie’s reaction to this event. Coetzee won his second Booker Prize for this novel.

The English Patient
Michael Ondaatje’s 1992 novel, The English Patient, explores key themes of postcolonial discourse, including the intersections of individual and national identity and how the interaction between the two shapes consciousness. Set in a villa in Florence, the novel follows the lives of a young woman and three men from different countries, all revolving around a severely burned English patient lying in an upstairs room. The novel was adapted into an internationally acclaimed film in 1996.

The House of the Spirits Isabelle Allende’s debut novel, The House of the Spirits, first published in 1982, chronicles Chile's history through its female characters. Much like many postcolonial narratives, Allende focuses on the marginalized—here, women—to critique the dominant patriarchal power structures. By recounting Chile's history from the perspective of an oppressed group, Allende unveils the immorality and brutality at the core of the colonizing authorities. Through this, she not only reclaims her country's history but also her own personal history, refusing to remain a victim any longer.

Midnight’s Children
Salman Rushdie’s 1981 Booker Prize-winning novel interweaves his personal history with that of India, narrated by Saleem Sinai, who is born in 1947—the same year as Rushdie and India's independence. Rushdie employs various narrative techniques, including Hindu storytelling, Magic Realism, and a style reminiscent of the “Bombay talkie,” a genre of Indian film, to highlight the complexities of writing history and the many opportunities for independence that were lost. Midnight’s Children established Rushdie’s international reputation, but it also angered many Indians due to its portrayal of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi as a tyrant. Rushdie revised the novel and issued an apology. His 1988 work, The Satanic Verses, caused even greater controversy, as Muslim fundamentalists deemed it blasphemous towards Islam and the Prophet Muhammad. The Indian government banned the book, global protests erupted, and Ayatollah Khomeini, the Iranian revolution's spiritual leader, issued a fatwa, sentencing Rushdie to death.

Outside History: Selected Poems, 1980–1990 In her 1990 poetry collection, Outside History: Selected Poems, 1980–1990, Eavan Boland challenges the poetic traditions of England and Ireland, arguing that Irish women have faced dual oppression: first as a colony of England and second due to their gender. Boland undertakes the challenging task of rewriting history to provide Irish women with a voice and a place in her country's poetic traditions. Her poems, while often addressing experiences common to many women, also allude to Irish poetic tradition and mythology.

Rose Li-Young Lee’s inaugural collection of poems, Rose, published in 1986, offers insight into the consciousness of the Chinese diaspora. Born in Jakarta to parents who emigrated from China to Indonesia and then to America, Lee’s poems are deeply personal and rich with family history. They reveal the profound emotional and psychological impacts of forced emigration on both families and individuals. The pervasive “silence” in Lee’s poetry reflects his own shame over his inability to fluently speak the language of his new country.

A Small Place
In her 1988 book, A Small Place, Jamaica Kincaid reflects on her personal experiences growing up in Antigua, a former British colony. She expresses her disdain for the detrimental effects of British colonialism on her homeland. Kincaid particularly critiques the British educational system, which she argues tried to transform Antiguans into replicas of the English. She also criticizes Antiguans for their readiness to embrace the worst aspects of British culture while ignoring its positive elements. Kincaid discusses Antigua both before and after gaining independence, indicating that the country, in some respects, has deteriorated since becoming self-governing.

Things Fall Apart
Chinua Achebe’s 1958 novel, Things Fall Apart, is set in Africa at the dawn of the twentieth century and delves into the clash between traditional African society and British colonialism. The main character, Okonkwo, a member of the Ibo tribe, grapples with understanding and adapting to the changes introduced by British rule and Christianity. The novel has sold over eight million copies globally and has been translated into more than fifty languages. Things Fall Apart is frequently included in literature, history, and philosophy course syllabi. In 1959, Achebe received the Margaret Wrong Memorial Prize for this novel. Achebe's 1987 novel, Anthills of the Savannah, explores the post-independence state of a fictional West African nation, highlighting how colonial legacies continue to hinder the country's potential for unity.

In 1996, British director Isaac Julien transformed Algerian revolutionary Frantz Fanon's seminal work, Black Skin, White Mask, into a film bearing the same title. Released by California Newsreel, the film includes interviews with Fanon's family and friends, documentary footage, readings from his writings, and dramatizations of pivotal moments in his life.

Michael Ondaatje's novel, The English Patient, was also adapted into a film in 1996, directed by Anthony Minghella. This adaptation garnered nine Oscars, including the award for Best Picture.

Director Mira Nair’s 1991 film, Mississippi Masala, delves into the racial tensions between immigrant Indians from Uganda and African-Americans living in the South. Another of Nair’s films, The Perez Family (1993), portrays the lives of Cuban refugees who arrived in the United States during the Mariel boatlift of 1980.

Achebe, Chinua, Things Fall Apart, William Heinemann, 1958.

Allende, Isabelle, The House of the Spirits, Bantam Books, 1986.

Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Empire Writes Back, Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1990.

—, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, Routledge, 1995.

Bhabha, Homi K., The Location of Culture, Routledge, 1994.

—, ed., Nation and Narration, Routledge, 1990.

Boland, Eavan, Outside History: Selected Poems, 1980–1990, Norton, 1990.

Coetzee, J. M., Disgrace, Viking Penguin, 1999.

—, Waiting for the Barbarians, Penguin Books, 1982.

Fanon, Frantz, Black Skin, White Masks, Grove, 1967.

—, The Wretched of the Earth, Grove Press, 1967.

Harasym, Sarah, ed., The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues, Routledge, 1990, pp. 67–74.

Howe, Irving, “A Stark Political Fable of South Africa,” in the New York Times, April 18, 1982, Sec. 7, p. 1.

Lee, Li-Young, Rose, BOA Editions, 1986.

Leitch, Vincent B., ed., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, W. W. Norton, 2001, pp. 1–28.

Nettl, Bruno, The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-Nine Issues and Concepts, University of Illinois Press, 1983, pp. 147–50.

Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, Heinemann, 1986.

Ondaatje, Michael, The English Patient, Knopf, 1992.

Said, Edward, Orientalism, Vintage Books, 1978.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, A Critique of Post-Colonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present, Harvard University Press, 1999.

Stokes, Martin, ed., Ethnicity, Identity and Music: The Musical Construction of Place, Oxford, 1994, p. 147.

Further Reading
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, eds., The Empire Writes Back, Routledge, 1990. This accessible study explores new literature from cultures such as India, Australia, the West Indies, Africa, and Canada, detailing numerous debates that energize postcolonial discourse.

—, eds., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, Routledge, 1995. This anthology offers the most extensive selection of texts in postcolonial theory and criticism to date, featuring ninety of the discipline’s most widely read works. Prominent theorists like Said, Spivak, and Homi Bhaba are included, with their essays edited for clarity and accessibility.

Fanon, Frantz, Black Skin, White Masks, Grove, 1967. Fanon draws heavily from his personal experiences to illustrate how his intellectual and emotional world, alongside his country, has been colonized by the French.

Said, Edward, Orientalism, Vintage Books, 1978. Said’s examination of how the West has historically represented the Arab world stands as one of the seminal works of postcolonial theory.

Thieme, John, ed., Post-Colonial Literatures, Arnold, 1996. This anthology includes writings from over two hundred authors, making it the most comprehensive collection of anglophone postcolonial literature ever published in one volume. Thieme organizes the sections by regions, including Africa, Australia, Canada, the Caribbean, New Zealand and South Pacific, South Asia, South-East Asia, and Trans-Cultural Writing. Thieme also provides a helpful introduction explaining his selection and organizational strategy.