Style and Technique
The literary trope of white men venturing into the jungle to unearth the darker facets of human nature has long been explored, from Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness to Paul Theroux's The Mosquito Coast. Barbara Kingsolver's The Poisonwood Bible takes this familiar theme and enriches it by focusing on a dysfunctional family, drawing comparisons to William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury. Kingsolver, who acknowledges Faulkner as an influence, presents a narrative structure that weaves multiple perspectives, emphasizing the subjective interpretations of reality and the challenges in grasping an objective view of cultural interactions.
In The Poisonwood Bible, the narrative unfolds through the alternating voices of Orleanna Price and her four daughters, each providing a distinct lens on their experiences in the Congo. This multi-voiced approach highlights the unique ways individuals perceive the world around them. Orleanna, as the matriarch, recounts her ordeals through a maternal perspective, focusing on the fundamental needs of food and safety for her children amidst the lurking dangers of their new environment.
The daughters, each embodying different aspects of American attitudes, offer varied insights into their Congolese experience. Rachel, the epitome of American materialism, initially views the Congo through a lens of discomfort and bias, holding fast to her prejudices. Leah, starting as an idealistic follower of her father’s missionary zeal, evolves into a woman who finds a sense of belonging and purpose in African life, eventually embracing her new identity through her relationship with Anatole. Ruth May brings an adventurous spirit that quickly bonds with the local children, while Adah's cynical eye gradually softens as she empathizes with the local population's struggles. Nathan, the patriarch, remains a voiceless symbol of colonial arrogance, encapsulated in his notorious miscommunication, "TATA JESUS IS BANGALA," ironically translating to "Jesus is poisonwood." This highlights the dangers of imposing one's beliefs onto another culture without understanding it.
Kingsolver's decision to employ a multi-narrative format is both a bold and effective literary technique. The distinctive voices of the five women are intricately developed, each one adding depth and nuance to the overarching story. Biblical allusions abound throughout the novel, with each of the seven books paralleling biblical texts, enhancing the narrative's thematic richness. These references, along with animal metaphors such as the lion and the okapi, lend additional layers of meaning that extend beyond their immediate plot function.
The novel’s structure further amplifies its thematic complexity. The first four books, interspersed with Orleanna's reflective flashbacks, chronicle the Price family's seventeen-month ordeal in the Congo, setting the stage for the transformational journeys that follow. As the narrative progresses into the later books, time advances swiftly, capturing the women's diverse paths. Although some immediacy is sacrificed, the concluding sections resonate with profound emotional significance. The penultimate book, "Song of the Three Children," allows the surviving daughters to articulate the lessons they’ve gleaned from their experiences. The final book, "The Eyes in the Trees," mirrors Orleanna’s initial reflections, delivering a poignant, bittersweet culmination.
Historical Context
The narrative of colonialism in the Congo and its lasting impact is a complex tapestry of power, exploitation, and cultural clash. From the oppressive reign of Leopold II through the tumultuous journey to independence, the Congo's story is one of struggle and resilience. Echoing these historical themes, Barbara Kingsolver's The Poisonwood Bible explores the personal and political upheavals experienced by a missionary family in the Congo during the volatile period of the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Leopold’s Rule and the Congo Free State
At the heart of the Congo's colonial history is the figure of King Leopold II of Belgium, who, in the late 1870s, extended...
(This entire section contains 936 words.)
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his dominion over the region. Under the guise of the International Association, Leopold exploited the Congo's vast resources for personal gain. The land, referred to as the Congo Free State, was anything but free; it was an enslaved territory where Leopold exercised absolute control over land and commercial activities, notably rubber and ivory trades.
Public awareness of the brutal treatment of Congolese laborers, particularly those in the rubber industry, eventually led to international condemnation. By 1908, the Belgian Parliament assumed control from Leopold, establishing the Belgian Congo. Although forced labor was abolished, the economic reins remained tightly in European hands, with black Africans excluded from governance and economic participation, relegated to labor in mining operations under European management.
Emergence of Independence Movements
As the tide of global decolonization surged in the mid-20th century, so too did the aspirations for independence in the Congo. By 1955, Belgium proposed a gradual thirty-year plan for independence, ostensibly to secure their influence while improving African livelihoods. However, the growing nationalist fervor, spearheaded by figures like Patrice Lumumba and his National Congolese movement, challenged this paternalistic plan.
In January 1959, nationalist riots in Kinshasa signaled the weakening grip of Belgian colonial authority. By 1960, the tumult culminated in Belgium relinquishing control and the advent of the Republic of the Congo, with Lumumba as its first Prime Minister. Yet, this newfound autonomy was fraught with internal discord, as ethnic tensions and political rivalries destabilized the nascent government.
Political Instability and Mobutu's Rise
Amidst this chaotic backdrop, the Congolese army’s mutiny prompted Lumumba to seek Soviet assistance, a move that alarmed Western powers. Joseph Mobutu, seizing the opportunity, orchestrated a coup with the support of U.S. weapons and Belgian soldiers, eventually arresting and allegedly facilitating Lumumba's assassination. Mobutu's ascent to power marked the consolidation of a long authoritarian regime, sustained by U.S. support due to Cold War geopolitics.
By the end of the 1960s, the Congo was fractured, yet Mobutu's regime, centered in Kinshasa, managed to stabilize the government. His presidency, which lasted for three decades, was characterized by corruption and the marginalization of the Congolese populace in favor of foreign interests.
Personal and Political Struggles in The Poisonwood Bible
Against this historical canvas, Barbara Kingsolver’s The Poisonwood Bible presents a microcosm of cultural collision and personal transformation. The Price family, hapless yet determined missionaries, arrive in the Congo during the cusp of its fight for independence. Their story intertwines with the political upheavals that echo the broader historical narrative.
Reverend Nathan Price, driven by a misguided zeal to save Congolese souls, leads his family into Kilanga, a village unprepared for their presence. His lack of cultural sensitivity and understanding, coupled with his obstinate faith, alienates the villagers. The Price family’s personal tribulations mirror the larger exploitation and misunderstanding that characterized colonial rule.
As the Congo spirals towards independence, tensions rise within Kilanga and within the Price family. Nathan’s refusal to abandon their mission, despite mounting hostility and danger, reflects a broader theme of colonial arrogance and the imposition of foreign values. Leah, one of Nathan’s daughters, begins to question her father's authority, influenced by Anatole, a Congolese teacher advocating for independence.
Impact of Political Upheaval
The historical and personal tragedies unfold with the assassination of Lumumba and the subsequent U.S.-backed rise of Mobutu. Simultaneously, the Prices face their own tragedies: Ruth May, the youngest daughter, dies from a snake bite, and Orleanna finally takes decisive action to leave her abusive husband, Nathan. The family’s disintegration parallels the disarray within the Congo itself.
As the narrative evolves, each Price woman’s fate reflects the irreversible impact of their time in Africa. Orleanna becomes an activist, Rachel adapts to societal norms in Africa, Leah dedicates her life to improving Congolese livelihoods, and Adah returns to the U.S. to become a scientist, overcoming her physical limitations. Their stories illustrate the enduring scars of colonialism, both on a personal and sociopolitical level.
Cultural Clash and Feminism
Throughout the novel, Kingsolver explores the profound cultural misunderstandings and the imposition of Western ideals on African societies. The Prices arrive with their notions of civilization and religion, only to find their beliefs challenged and often irrelevant in Kilanga. This cultural disconnect highlights the broader failures of colonialism, where European systems were forcibly imposed without regard for indigenous traditions.
The novel also delves into the theme of feminism, examining the power dynamics within the Price family and African society. Nathan's patriarchal dominance is eventually subverted as his wife and daughters assert their autonomy. Leah’s relationship with Anatole represents a shift towards egalitarianism, contrasting with the traditional gender roles ingrained in both Western and African contexts.
Ultimately, both the historical account of the Congo's colonial past and Kingsolver's fictional narrative reveal the enduring consequences of imperialism. The Congo's journey from exploitation to independence, and the Price family's transformation amidst these changes, serve as poignant reminders of the complexities and human cost of colonial endeavors.
Adaptations
- Unabridged Audiotape Version (2004): Produced by Brilliance Audio, read by Dean Robertson. Available as an unabridged audio version of the novel.
Bibliography
Sources
Fox, Stephen D., "Barbara Kingsolver and Keri Hulme: Disability, Family, and Culture," in Critique, Vol. 45, No. 4, Summer 2004, pp. 405-18.
Greene, Gayle, "Independence Struggle," in Women's Review of Books, Vol. 16, No. 7, April 1999, pp. 8-9.
Kingsolver, Barbara, The Poisonwood Bible, HarperPerennial, 1998.
Koza, Kimberly A., "The Africa of Two Western Women Writers: Barbara Kingsolver and Margaret Laurence," in Critique, Vol. 44, No. 3, Spring 2003, pp. 284-94.
Leonard, John, "Kingsolver in the Jungle, Catullus and Wolfe at the Door," in Nation, January 11/18, 1999, pp. 28-30.
Review of The Poisonwood Bible, in Publishers Weekly, August 10, 1998, p. 366.
Stafford, Tim, "Poisonous Gospel," in Christianity Today, January 11, 1999, pp. 88-90.
Further Reading
Edgerton, Robert, The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo, St. Martin's Press, 2002.
Edgerton details the chaotic history of the Congo, from its pre-colonial era to the early 21st century.
Siegel, Lee, "Sweet and Low," in the New Republic, March 22, 1999, pp. 30-36.
Siegel evaluates Kingsolver's portrayal of black Africans and criticizes what he perceives as her biased perspective on Congolese politics.
Taylor, Jeffrey, Facing the Congo: A Modern-Day Journey into the Heart of Darkness, Three Rivers Press, 2001.
In this captivating narrative of his canoe expedition on the Congo River, Taylor uses his keen observation skills to describe the stunning yet perilous landscape of the country.
Walls, Andrew F., The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in Transmission of Faith, Orbis Books, 1996.
Walls examines the theoretical underpinnings of the missionary movement in both Western and Eastern contexts, along with specific missions.
