It's challenging to comprehend the vast divide between the modern world and ancient Greek society. Despite being unified by a common language and a sense of superiority over non-Greek speakers—the “barbarians”—the ancient Greeks were not cohesive among themselves. Each valley often supported its own independent political entity, and even individual islands frequently hosted multiple self-governing city-states (Greek polis). Given such fragmentation, it’s no surprise that Greek communities frequently clashed. This, coupled with the ambitions of neighboring kingdoms, ingrained warfare into the fabric of ancient Greek culture.

Within the polis, citizens convened and collectively decided how to address their community’s challenges. The small size of these communities was advantageous as it facilitated the direct interaction necessary for self-governance. The Greek practice of citizen rule starkly contrasted with the absolute monarchies that other Mediterranean peoples experienced, further reinforcing a unique Greek identity (Finley, 1964).

Some unity eventually emerged among the eastern city-states in response to Persia’s attempts to invade mainland Greece after subjugating those in Asia Minor. Athens played a pivotal role in defeating the Persians in 490 B.C., and led a coalition of city-states to another victory in 480 B.C. Expecting another attack, Athens formed a confederation of frightened Greek states, which contributed to Athens for collective defense.

After the Persian fleet was destroyed, members of the “Delian League” sought to regain their autonomy, but Athens forcibly maintained and even expanded the alliance, transforming it from a confederation into an empire. Enriched by ongoing tributes, Athens began to be perceived as a threat by Sparta, the leader of the Peloponnesian League. This tension eventually led to the Peloponnesian War, a quarter-century conflict that ended in 404 B.C. with Athens’ defeat and the collapse of its empire. Although Athens eventually regained its independence, it was weakened, and the ensuing chaos in its former territories paved the way for its final fall to the Macedonians in 322 B.C. (Finley, 1964).

While the Delian League members benefitted from the general peace enforced by Athens, it was Athens that gained the most. This era is known as its Golden Age. Much of Athens' achievements during this period are attributed to its leader, Pericles, who utilized the substantial funds stored at the Acropolis. After ensuring the strength of the Athenian fleet, he invested heavily in improving the city (Kitto, 1957). Under his leadership, the Parthenon, an enormous public-works project, was constructed. Pericles also increased spending on public festivals and introduced a system of pay for attendance at the Assembly, which expanded democratic participation beyond the wealthy to include the common citizen.

Modern critiques of Athenian democracy often focus on its lack of inclusiveness. Out of a population around 250,000, Athens had about 70,000 slaves who enabled the leisure necessary for direct democracy to function. Moreover, numerous aliens were excluded, and women were entirely barred from political participation. This left roughly 40,000 to 50,000 adult male citizens as the potential governing body of Athens.

Instead of solely criticizing Athens for its exclusions, it is more enlightening to examine how those eligible engaged in its governance. Any male citizen could attend the Assembly and vote on the issues being discussed; any man confident enough could participate in debates; and most government positions were filled by lot rather than elections. Given the effort this system demanded, it is no surprise that Athenian culture was deeply influenced by its democratic practices. Although Athens' government faced criticism for its flaws—most notably from Plato—the Athenian experiment in democracy embodies ideals of participation that remain aspirational today.

Reactions to The Republic

One of the most notable critiques of The Republic from Plato’s contemporaries came from Aristotle. In his work, Politics, Aristotle dismissed The Republic for suggesting ideas contrary to human nature. He was particularly critical of Plato's proposal that women, children, and property should be held in common by the Guardians (Politics, Book II).

Modern scholars continue to debate the meaning of The Republic. Some dismiss the elements criticized by Aristotle as obvious jokes, while others see them as offering fundamental insights into the flexibility of human "nature." Plato has been labeled both utopian and authoritarian: some view his proposals as impractical, while others believe they could lead to a fascist state.

The status of The Republic as a classic of Western literature is undisputed. Many of Plato's metaphors and parables, especially the Allegory of the Cave (Book 7), are frequently referenced. Ultimately, the value of The Republic lies as much in the questions it raises as in the answers it provides.

Finely, M. I. The Ancient Greeks. (1963) 1987. New York: Peregrine Books.

Kitto, H. D. F. The Greeks. (1951) 1991. New York: Penguin Books.

Plato. The Republic. Translated and annotated by Desmond Lee. (1955) 1974. New York: Penguin Books.

Plato. The Republic. Translated and annotated by Allan Bloom. (1968) 1991. New York: Basic Books.

Warner, Rex. The Greek Philosophers. 1958. New York: Mentor.