Pierre Corneille World Literature Analysis
Corneille is famous for his skill in creating dramatic tension by placing sympathetic characters in situations that require them to make difficult moral choices. As a lawyer, Corneille understood that the motivation for human behavior is rarely simple. Individuals wish to believe that their personal search for happiness should not conflict with the allegiance owed to state and family, but this is not always the case. In both The Cid and Horace, Corneille shows that characters can react very differently during the same moral crisis. In several plays, he made effective use of blocking characters who created problems that would not have existed if all the characters had been tolerant and understanding. The Roman tragedy Horace illustrates nicely how Corneille integrated moral conflicts into his plays.
From the opening scenes in Horace, audiences realize that several generations of Albans and Romans have lived together in peace and that numerous marriages between Albans and Romans seem to have cemented the links between their two countries. At the beginning of Horace, one cannot imagine what could possibly destroy the stability and peace between Rome and Alba. Sabine (an Alban noblewoman) has married the Roman nobleman Horace, and his sister Camille is in love with Sabine’s brother Curiace and hopes to marry him. The Roman king decides, however, to invade Alba in order to expand his political power. Corneille’s audiences understand that this is a totally unjustified and unnecessary invasion, because the Albans have not the slightest desire to threaten the security of Rome. They simply want to live in peace with their more powerful neighbors in Rome. The Roman invasion provokes extreme reactions from both Sabine’s husband and her father-in-law, the older Horace. Both affirm that Romans must prove their loyalty by hating the Albans. Neither the younger nor the elder Horace believes that one can separate political service to one’s country from commitment to one’s beloved. Both the younger and older Horaces are fanatics who refuse to accept the fact that Camille can love Curiace and still be a loyal Roman. In combat, Camille’s two other brothers and Curiace are all killed. The grieving Camille tells Horace that Rome has dishonored itself by killing peaceful Albans. The enraged Horace takes out his sword and kills his sister offstage. In a very real sense, the war between Alba and Rome was the equivalent of a civil war, the two countries having lived together in peace for generations. In Horace, Corneille shows that the combination of civil war and blind patriotism can transform otherwise decent people into violent characters. Patriotism is an admirable virtue, but one should never allow patriotism to corrupt moral judgment. Blinded by his hatred for Alba, Horace concludes that killing Camille was “an act of justice.” It is obvious that this murder of his sister had absolutely nothing to do with “justice” and represented, on the contrary, the moral degeneracy of Horace.
Corneille lived during a very turbulent period of French history. During his childhood in Normandy, peasant revolts against the royal forces were suppressed with incredible cruelty. During the 1630’s, the intolerance of Cardinal Richelieu (the French prime minister under King Louis XIII) caused much suffering among French Protestants. The abuse of power by Cardinal Mazarin (the French prime minister during the early years of the reign of King Louis XIV) created great resentment and provoked a civil war that lasted from 1648 until 1653.
Several of Corneille’s most effective plays, such as Horace, Polyeucte, and Suréna , illustrate the extraordinarily destructive effect on society when political power is used abusively or...
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arbitrarily. The action in his major plays takes place in different countries, but the game of political power unfolds in very similar ways. Corneille’s political plays warn that the misuse of political power can have a long-term negative effect on society as a whole. Corneille created much sympathy for characters who adhered to high ethical standards and refused to commit amoral actions in order to advance their careers, but these same morally admirable characters are frequently destroyed by those who played the political “power game” more ruthlessly and effectively.
Corneille is justly famous for the finely crafted speeches that his characters use in order to defend their political decisions. The formal eloquence of these speeches is not misleading once it is realized that selfish and intolerant characters such as Horace use specious reasoning in order to justify their refusal to respect the basic freedom and dignity of other characters. When Horace tries to justify his murder of his sister Camille, the audience is not persuaded by his arguments.
It would be hasty to conclude that Corneille did not believe in the basic goodness of people. He spent years translating into French Thomas à Kempis’s The Imitation of Jesus Christ, a famous work of lay piety that affirmed that systematic meditation and prayer can enable all Christians to develop a rich understanding of the divine perfection in every believer. Corneille felt that people can attain true happiness and spiritual growth in their personal lives as long as they are not tempted by the Machiavellian world of politics.
The Cid
First produced: Le Cid, 1637 (first published, 1637; English translation, 1637)
Type of work: Play
In the feudal society of medieval Spain, the sympathetic lovers Rodrigue and Chimène must choose between duty and love.
Although it was Corneille’s eighth play, The Cid was his first great popular and critical success. He transformed the medieval epic legend of the Cid into a very intimate play in which Rodrigue and Chimène suffer unnecessarily because of the selfishness of their fathers. Rodrigue and Chimène love each other very much and want to get married. Instead of considering the happiness of their adult children, Don Gomès (Chimène’s father) and Don Diègue (Rodrigue’s father) become involved in a petty argument that turns violent. Each claims to merit the honor of serving as the governor to King Fernand’s eldest son, a purely honorary position. The king’s decision is totally arbitrary and does not imply any criticism of the man not chosen. When Don Gomès realizes that his rival will receive this appointment, he loses his temper and slaps Don Diègue, who interprets this not as the crime of battery but rather as an offense against his family’s honor. He demands that his son avenge this insult by killing Don Gomès in a duel—a request that places Rodrigue in a terrible situation and does not give him enough time to consider an alternative. As a lawyer, Corneille knew that there were obvious legal remedies available for Don Diègue. Charges should have been brought against Don Gomès, and a court should have tried him for his physical attack against Don Diègue, who could also have begun a civil suit against his attacker. Death was an excessive penalty for the crime of battery. In act 1, both Don Diègue and Rodrigue deliver monologues that create very negative impressions on listeners, who conclude that both characters are irrational and violent men who do not respect the absolute value of human life.
After the death of Don Gomès, the king finds himself in a very delicate situation. As an absolute monarch, he has the authority to judge criminal cases. Although Rodrigue is a military hero, the king cannot excuse Rodrigue’s crime because it is very dangerous for individuals to place themselves above the law. Society cannot permit young soldiers to kill elderly gentlemen in duels. Although Chimène demands justice, she does not want to have Rodrigue executed for the murder of her father. King Fernand is a patient and objective judge. He comes to understand that it was the fanaticism of Don Diègue that caused Rodrigue to commit his heinous crime. There were extenuating circumstances. Although Rodrigue is guilty, the king pardons him and allows him to resume his military career. King Fernand suggests that after an appropriate period of mourning Chimène may want to marry Rodrigue. He strongly recommends that Chimène take at least one year before deciding whether she can forgive Rodrigue for his crime.
The Cid shows that chaos may result if individuals place their own desires above the needs of society as a whole. Whatever his motivation may have been, Don Diègue did not consider the effect of his fanaticism on others. Only the wisdom and compassion of King Fernand resulted in a solution that both preserved the rule of law and spared the life of Rodrigue. King Fernand accorded equal importance to both justice and mercy.
When he first published The Cid, Corneille referred to it as a tragicomedy, although he later decided to call it a tragedy. There is, however, no tragic vision of the world in The Cid. Although this play explores serious themes, such as death and justice, it does have a relatively optimistic ending. King Fernand may well succeed in restoring order to his kingdom while at the same time allowing Rodrigue and Chimène to live emotionally satisfying lives.
Polyeucte
First produced: 1642 (first published, 1643; English translation, 1655)
Type of work: Play
Polyeucte describes the heroism of converts to Christianity who willingly accept martyrdom.
The action in Polyeucte takes place in the Roman colony of Armenia. Emperor Decia hates Christians and insists that all of his governors enforce his draconian laws against them. Practicing Christianity is a capital offense. Polyeucte has married Pauline, the daughter of Félix, the Roman governor in Armenia. Although she loved Sévère, she acceded to her father’s wishes and married Polyeucte because he was then richer than Sévère. Things have changed, and Sévère is now an influential adviser to Emperor Decia. Polyeucte seems to be a very ordinary person. No one expects any surprises from him, but his friend Néarque persuades him to embrace Christianity. Both Polyeucte and Pauline speak of her recurring nightmare in which she sees Polyeucte’s death. He does not take this nightmare seriously, but she is terrified. Although he wants to become a Christian, he does not want to anger Pauline and Félix, who hold Christians in contempt. After much hesitation, Polyeucte publicly reveals his conversion.
This development creates an immediate problem for Félix, Sévère, and Pauline. Should Decia’s arbitrary law against Christians be enforced? At first, Félix thinks that he can profit from Polyeucte’s martyrdom if Pauline then marries the influential Sévère. Pauline rejects this proposal and vows never to marry Sévère; she appeals to Sévère’s love for her and begs him to intervene with her father. Félix is intransigent but gives his son-in-law one last opportunity to avoid death. He forces Polyeucte to watch the execution of Néarque offstage. Far from discouraging him, this martyrdom only serves to strengthen Polyeucte’s commitment to his new religion, and he is executed. The martyrdom of Polyeucte unexpectedly affects Félix and Pauline, who are so moved by his courage that they both convert to Christianity. As this tragedy ends, Sévère expresses admiration for Christians and promises not to persecute them. He believes that Félix and Pauline can serve both God and Decía.
Polyeucte is a very powerful tragedy that explores with much sensitivity the importance of courage, loyalty, and personal commitment to ethical and religious beliefs. Although Polyeucte had no intention of converting to Christianity before his conversations with Néarque, he comes to realize that his life would have no meaning if he were to deny his faith. He refuses to lose his immortal soul in order to save his life. Although Pauline would have preferred to marry Sévère, Polyeucte is her husband and she admires his courage. Her love and respect for him made her ready to accept the gift of faith after his execution. Similarly, Félix was displeased that his son-in-law was not as skilled a politician as Sévère, but he did recognize Polyeucte’s honesty. Félix’s conversion to Christianity has struck many critics as almost incredible, but one cannot question his sincerity. Félix tells Sévère: “I made him a martyr, his death made me a Christian.” Polyeucte continues to fascinate readers and theatergoers by its very effective representation of heroism through characters who refuse to compromise their moral beliefs.