Form and Content
Like most of her novels, Persuasion affords Jane Austen an opportunity to explore social relationships among middle-class men and women living in what is usually considered a refined, country environment away from the commercial and political centers of England. Unlike other Austen novels, however, Persuasion features a heroine who is not a young ingenue first learning the customs and taboos of polite society. Anne Elliot, second daughter of a minor country baronet, is nearing thirty when the action of the novel begins. Readers learn early that she was once engaged to Frederick Wentworth but gave up her lover when friends and relatives convinced her that he was not worthy of her. The action of the novel concentrates on her becoming reacquainted with Wentworth, now a naval captain, and overcoming the objections of others and the connivances of rivals for Wentworth’s affection.
Austen centers the action in various locales: Kellynch Hall, the ancestral home of the Elliots; the country village of Uppercross; and the resort city of Bath. Rising debts cause Anne’s father to rent out Kellynch Hall and move to less expensive lodgings in Bath; Anne visits relatives in Uppercross, where she first learns that Wentworth has returned to the region after rising to distinction and amassing a comfortable fortune through service in the Navy. In a series of connected episodes, Anne and her circle of family and friends travel freely in a series of visits and excursions that give the young men and women ample opportunity to discuss important social issues and establish amorous attachments. Their conversations give readers a glimpse into the values held most sacred by the middle class of English society at the turn of the nineteenth century. It is clear that the young women spend most of their time plotting to snare an eligible bachelor; those who are married focus their attention on their families, taking time to assist in advancing the courtships of their unmarried associates. Although the young men pursue a variety of professions, they are as interested in social repartee as the women are. The novel is filled with parties, dinners, and trips to see local sights of interest.
Throughout the novel, Anne vacillates in her feelings about Wentworth, wondering whether she should renew her ardent love for him. She struggles to overcome the social prejudices that led her to reject Wentworth eight years earlier, all the while being concerned that others, especially her friend and confidante Lady Russell, might object to a reprise of a relationship of which they had been critical in the past. She is alternately persuaded to pursue him or to relinquish the idea that they might rekindle the affection they once felt for each other. Meanwhile, other women younger than Anne set their sights on Wentworth; Louisa Musgrove, sister to Anne’s brother-in-law, makes a particularly demonstrative play for his affections. A freak accident in which Louisa is seriously injured appears to drive Wentworth forward in his attentions toward her, and Anne can do nothing but be patient and let events take their natural course.
Because Austen tells the story almost exclusively from the point of view of her heroine, readers are led to wonder along with Anne whether Wentworth is serious in his attentions toward other women. Only when her cousin William Elliot appears as a suitor on the scene to seek Anne’s hand does Wentworth finally reveal that he is still smitten with her, at which point the two put aside their fears about what others might say and restore their engagement—this time as a prelude to marriage.
Context
Unlike many women novelists before the twentieth century, Jane Austen has always enjoyed a good reputation among writers (both men and women), and from the initial publication of her work in the first decades of the nineteenth century she has been considered a standard toward which aspiring novelists—especially women novelists—were to reach. Although most male novelists and critics writing prior to the 1960’s have been somewhat patronizing toward Austen because she focuses her attention on domestic and social issues, women writers have long looked to her as one of the earliest feminist novelists. Her heroines usually emerge above the conventional roles expected of women in Austen’s day, although the author’s critique of gender relationships remains a muted strain in works that seem conservative to casual readers. Her work was known and respected by the Brontes and by George Eliot; she is the subject of commentary by the earliest critics now associated with the twentieth century women’s movement, including Virginia Woolf.
Because it was her final novel and was published in what most critics consider an unfinished state, Persuasion has not enjoyed the reputation and influence accorded to other works in the Austen canon, especially Emma and Pride and Prejudice. Nevertheless, in the later decades of the twentieth century, the novel has received increasing attention from critics, especially those interested in women’s issues. Chapters in scholarly studies are devoted to detailed examinations of the work’s characters, themes, and techniques. A number of critics find the novel an advance over earlier Austen works, noting that the writer is able to provide extensive background through brief synopsis so that attention may be concentrated on the climactic scenes in which Anne asserts her independence from the patriarchal society that has denied her the opportunity to make her own choices regarding marriage and lifestyle. The novel is often cited as a mature critique of the social system that treats women as objects and trivializes their intellectual abilities. The union of Anne and Captain Wentworth as equal partners in marriage is hailed as a goal that Austen was promoting despite her apparent acquiescence to traditional social and moral values.
Places Discussed
Kellynch
Kellynch. Elliot family estate in southwestern England’s Somersetshire, where the novel opens, with the spendthrift baronet Sir Walter Elliot reading the “Elliot of Kellynch-Hall” entry in a list of baronets. Jane Austen rarely describes buildings in any physical detail and devotes scarcely a single word to Kellynch Hall itself. The house can, however, be imagined to be a fairly impressive structure, probably a manor house dating back to the seventeenth century, as the Elliots are an “ancient and respectable family.”)
During Austen’s lifetime, the country gentry—prosperous landowners living on estates similar to Kellynch and serving as local landlords and civil magistrates—constituted the backbone of English society. However, Sir Walter, selfish, shallow, hopelessly vain, and near financial ruin, is forced by his circumstances to rent out Kellynch Hall and move to less expensive quarters in Bath. In so doing, he forsakes his social responsibilities as manor lord, leaves his tenants to fend for themselves, and makes of Kellynch Hall and its “deserted grounds” a kind of socially purposeless derelict that his daughter Anne can only think of in pain.
Uppercross
Uppercross. Musgrove family estate, located three miles from Kellynch Hall. It includes both the Great House that is the home of the elder Musgroves and their daughters, Henrietta and Louisa, and Uppercross Cottage, the home of Anne’s sister Mary and her husband, Charles Musgrove. The senior Mr. Musgrove is very much an English squire in the traditional sense—one of which Austen approves. His estate is well managed, prosperous, and generally happy. At the same time, however, Uppercross is in the midst of ongoing renovation. Uppercross Cottage (“elevated” from a farmhouse) now sports a “veranda, French windows, and other features. Even the Great House’s old-fashioned parlor has been modernized to such an extent by Henrietta and Louisa that its paintings of Musgrove ancestors seem “to be staring in astonishment.” Austen, a social conservative in most ways, nevertheless recognizes that change, when undertaken within reasonable limits, is both a necessary and a healthy process. The Musgroves change, and their estate thrives; Sir Walter does not, and Kellynch is left barren.
*Lyme
*Lyme. Dorset town on the southern coast of England, some twenty miles from Uppercross. Well known as a seaside resort and for its Cobb, a massive stone breakwater enclosing its small harbor, Lyme becomes the temporary home of Captain Harville and his family. When Anne visits Lyme, she is impressed both with the natural beauty of the surrounding countryside and with the “picture of repose and domestic happiness” within the Harville’s small house—a telling contrast with the cold, vacant grandeur of Kellynch Hall.
One of the novel’s key events occurs on a walking tour in Lyme, when Louisa Musgrove is badly injured in a fall from the Cobb. Significantly, Austen’s descriptions of the local landscapes in this section of the novel, with an emphasis on “high grounds” and “dark cliffs,” are among her richest and most deeply felt, suggesting an imaginative identification with nature that would seem to connect her with her literary contemporaries, the Romantic poets. Certainly, Anne’s appreciative response to Lyme’s natural beauty points to her own reawakening after eight years of heartbreak and emotional dormancy—a reawakening outwardly symbolized by her renewed “bloom.”
*Bath
*Bath. Early nineteenth century England’s premier resort town, located near Bristol, about fifty miles from Kellynch Hall. Named after its famous hot springs, which are supposed to have curative powers, Bath is fashionably elegant and offers a lively social agenda, including theatrical performances, concerts, dances, and the Pump Room, in which visitors can drink its famous water.
Bath was attractive to most classes of English society, but Anne’s impoverished friend Mrs. Smith can only afford to live in Bath in a humble way, “almost excluded from society.” Anne herself, however, sincerely dislikes Bath, as did Austen (who is said to have fainted when she found that her family was to move there in 1801). She finds little there but despair: The rain seems unending; the streets are crowded, muddy, and full of mindless clamor; and her snobbish family’s evenings are often passed “in the elegant stupidity of private parties.” Only the presence of the Crofts (the admiral hopes that “taking the waters” will help his gout) and, later, Wentworth, makes life bearable for her.
Historical Context
Sentimental Novel
The sentimental novel emerged as a popular literary form in England toward the
end of the eighteenth century. This genre centers on the challenges faced by
virtuous individuals striving to live exemplary lives. By the novel's
conclusion, characters who demonstrate honor and moral behavior typically
resolve their difficulties and restore order to their lives. These didactic
narratives promote accepted moral standards, suggesting that such conduct will
eventually be rewarded. Characters in these novels openly express their
emotions, indicating their benevolence and compassion. Samuel Richardson's
Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, published in 1740, is the most renowned
example of this genre, detailing the life of a servant girl who withstands
numerous attacks on her honor. Other notable works include Goldsmith's The
Vicar of Wakefield (1776), Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771),
and Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent (1800). Jane Austen diverged from this
tradition in her novels, which focus on realistic portrayals of the conflicts
between her heroines and their societal expectations.
A Woman's Place
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, women were generally
confined to the social class into which they were born, unless their fathers or
husbands experienced a change in social status. Each class had strict rules
that defined women's lives. Upper-class women had the leisure to pursue
education, but like their lower-class counterparts, they were not expected to
think independently and were often ignored when they did. Desires for
independence and self-determination were suppressed across all classes. The
period's strict social morality required women to embody the ideals of polite
femininity, culminating in marriage and motherhood. Jane Austen's novels both
reflect and challenge contemporary attitudes toward women. Her heroines
navigate within the constraints of the middle class, yet their sharp intellects
and independent spirits drive them to seek some degree of autonomy. Brian
Southam, in his article on Austen for British Writers, notes that each
of Austen's heroines must "practice the morality of compromise and discover her
own way of accepting the demands of society while preserving the integrity of
her own values and beliefs."
Social Revolution
Austen's novels portray the division of British society at the close of the
eighteenth century into three main classes: the aristocracy, the gentry, and
the yeoman class. However, the revolutionary spirit of the late eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries, highlighted by the American and French revolutions,
began to permeate English society. During this era, class distinctions started
to loosen and be redefined. As the lower-middle classes experienced increased
prosperity, they began to imitate the behaviors of their social "superiors,"
just as the upper-middle class gentry did. The middle classes became engrossed
in adopting the "proper" manners, attire, and décor characteristic of the
aristocracy.
Literary Style
Domestic Comedy
Austen played a pivotal role in developing the domestic comedy of middle-class
manners, a genre focused on family dynamics and issues. These novels emphasize
the behaviors and traditions of the British middle class, particularly the
landed gentry in Austen's works. The narrative centers on family dilemmas
related to the specific customs and perspectives of this structured social
group. The viewpoint is frequently satirical, highlighting and critiquing the
quirks of its characters. While the plot may present clever resolutions to
family conflicts, its significance lies more in the character development and
dialogue. In Persuasion, Austen's storyline centers on familial
conflicts and the desire to exclude those deemed unsuitable. Characters like
Lady Russell and Mrs. Clay are somewhat one-dimensional, but most of the Elliot
family is intricately portrayed, capturing the essence of upper-middle-class
life in early nineteenth-century England. As the story unfolds, Austen
critiques the snobbery and arrogance of the landed gentry through her portrayal
of Sir Walter. By the novel's conclusion, all conflicts are resolved,
culminating in Anne's joyful marriage to Wentworth.
Compare and Contrast
Late 1700s: Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Woman was published in 1792. This book highlights the increasing frustration women experience due to their unequal treatment at home and in various institutions.
Today: American women have achieved significant progress in their quest for equality through numerous legislative measures. Although some important bills, such as the 1972 Equal Rights Amendment, have not been enacted, it is now illegal to discriminate against women.
Late 1700s: During this era, the sentimental novel was one of the most popular literary forms. These works were instructional and reinforced "proper" moral behavior among their characters.
Today: Thrillers and memoirs are the most favored genres among the general reading audience.
Late 1700s: The American War of Independence took place from 1775 to 1783, leading to the end of British rule over America.
Today: Catholics in Northern Ireland, supported by the Irish Republican Army (IRA), continue their efforts to gain independence from English control.
Media Adaptations
Persuasion was turned into a film by Roger Michell, featuring Amanda Root and Ciaran Hinds. This adaptation was produced by Columbia/Tristar Studios in 1995 and is available through Columbia Home Video.
An earlier film adaptation was directed by Howard Baker, starring Anne Firbank and Bryan Marshall. This version was released by BBC Video in 1971.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Drabble, Margaret, "Introduction" in Persuasion by Jane Austen, Signet,
1989, pp. v-xx.
Kelly, Gary, "Jane Austen," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 116: British Romantic Novelists, 1789-1832, Gale Research, 1992, pp. 3-35.
Southam, Brian, "Jane Austen," in British Writers, Vol. 4, Scribner, 1981, pp. 101-24.
For Further Reading
Brown, Lloyd, W., Bits of Ivory: Narrative Techniques in Jane Austen's
Fiction, Louisiana State University Press, 1973.
Brown offers an insightful analysis of how Austen constructs realistic
depictions of everyday life in her novels.
Butler, Marilyn, Jane Austen and the War of Ideas, Clarendon Press,
1975.
This book delves into Austen's major themes, including a thorough examination
of class consciousness, a prevalent theme in all her works.
Litz, A. Walton, Jane Austen: A Study of Her Artistic Development,
Oxford University Press, 1965.
Walton situates Persuasion in Austen's later period and explores the
novel's structure and style.
Pinion, F. B., A Jane Austen Companion: A Critical Survey and Reference
Book, Macmillan, 1973.
Pinion provides a detailed and helpful introduction to the themes and structure
of Austen's literature.
Bibliography
Dwyer, June. Jane Austen. New York: Continuum, 1989. Dwyer offers readings of each of Austen’s major novels, including Persuasion, and in separate chapters discusses the writer’s life and her literary techniques and concerns.
Gard, Robert. Jane Austen’s Novels: The Art of Clarity. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992. Gard writes what he calls a corrective to criticism that has moved readers too far away from the texts of Austen’s novels into theoretical concerns. His chapter on Persuasion discusses Austen’s mature ability as a novelist.
Johnson, Claudia. Jane Austen: Women, Politics, and the Novel. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988. Johnson considers the political dimension of all Austen’s novels, showing how the writer integrates her own voice and views subtly within texts that seem conservative on casual reading.
Kirkham, Margaret. Jane Austen, Feminism, and Fiction. Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble Books, 1983. Kirkham places Austen’s work within the feminist tradition, showing that the writer’s concerns are those of her feminist contemporaries. She includes a chapter on eighteenth century feminism. The chapter on Persuasion shows how Austen uses the novel as a feminist critique of society.
Paris, Bernard J. Character and Conflict in Jane Austen’s Novels: A Psychological Approach. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1978. Analyzes the characters of Anne Elliot and Captain Frederick Wentworth and makes a case for Persuasion as Austen’s most romantic novel. Evaluates the roles played in the novel by such secondary characters as Lady Russell, Mrs. Musgrove, and Mrs. Croft.
Scott, P. J. M. Jane Austen: A Reassessment. Totowa, N.J.: Barnes and Noble Books, 1982. Contains a full assessment of Persuasion, which the author sees as the culmination of Austen’s work. Examines the egotism and idleness of the entire Elliot family save Anne.
Tanner, Tony. Jane Austen. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. Examines Austen’s novels in relationship to society, education, and language. Shows Persuasion to be a new form of novel for Austen in that it is a negation of her previous works; the action arises from Anne Elliot’s denial of her love for Wentworth.
Thompson, James. Between Self and World: The Novels of Jane Austen. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1988. Considers late eighteenth century views of courtship and marriage in Austen’s novels. Shows Persuasion’s place in the Austen canon which, as a whole, revolves around reading or interpreting the sentiments of others.
Todd, Janet, ed. Jane Austen: New Perspectives. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983. Nineteen essayists explore Austen’s novels from varying perspectives, most of them inspired by poststructuralist theory or feminist ideology. Recurring themes are highlighted; each of the major novels is discussed in at least one essay.
Williams, Michael. Jane Austen: Six Novels and Their Methods. Houndsmills, England: MacMillan, 1986. Williams examines Austen’s means of shaping her novels; a chapter is included on each of the six major works, including Persuasion; Williams believes that its complex plotting and characterization give the novel a richer texture than those of earlier works by the novelist.
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