Social Darwinism
In the late nineteenth century, Charles Darwin's theories profoundly influenced every intellectual field. Although Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859, its impact was most pronounced in the United States during the 1880s and 1890s. Various social science scholars began to apply Darwin's evolutionary principles to understand the development of human societies. These scholars, known as "Social Darwinists," proposed that human behavior was determined by hereditary traits through an evolutionary process. The most renowned of these thinkers was Herbert Spencer, an English social scientist who popularized the term "survival of the fittest" to describe the powerful law of "natural selection" that dictates society's natural evolution. Many Social Darwinists adapted the concept of natural selection to existing racial theories, using evolutionary reasoning to justify the status of different races during their era. Social Darwinists were split on whether humans could actively influence their evolution for the better or if they were at the mercy of natural selection. Despite disagreements among Social Darwinists, their widely publicized debates subtly propagated evolutionary reasoning throughout society.

Realism and Naturalism
The widespread influence of Darwinism in the late nineteenth century coincided with a shift in social thought from abstract idealism to exploring concrete reality. With the Industrial Revolution's technological advancements, science and the experimental method gained unprecedented prestige. This cultural backdrop inspired a new literary movement known as Realism, which aimed to create "photographically" vivid portrayals of life as it truly is. Their emphasis on "hard facts" mirrored the scientific approach. Realists were committed to eliminating sentimentality and polite conventions from their narratives. William Dean Howells championed the doctrine of Realism, garnering support from authors like Mark Twain and Henry James. As the movement gained traction, it became more controversial when some writers began to shock audiences with "objective" depictions of sexuality, brutality, vulgarity, and unredeemed injustice, intentionally avoiding the moral condemnation typical of nineteenth-century literature on such topics. In the 1890s, Realism evolved into a more philosophical form in the works of the Naturalists. Inspired by French novelist Emile Zola, leading Naturalist, some American writers sought to incorporate deterministic philosophies into their writing. Naturalists were deeply concerned with whether humans could control their fate or if it was determined by their environment. Influenced by deterministic philosophies like those of Darwin and Marx, the Naturalists examined the "natural" forces or "scientific" laws influencing the "struggle for life." One of the most prominent Naturalists, Stephen Crane, remarked that we live in "a world full of fists" where survival is not necessarily for the "fittest" but for the most fortunate.

The Spanish-American War
When Cuban revolutionaries launched a war for independence against Spain in 1895, the United States provided both financial and moral support to the cause. American newspapers extensively covered the rebellion, publishing anti-Spanish stories daily. Crane, working as a newspaper correspondent, was on assignment covering the uprising when the ship he was on, carrying arms for the revolutionaries, sank off the coast of Florida. This experience led him to write the story "The Open Boat" shortly afterward. In February 1898, Spanish forces sank the American battleship Maine in Havana Harbor, resulting in the deaths of 260 American sailors. On April 24, the United States declared war on Spain with overwhelming public support. The Spanish-American War was immensely popular, tapping into the era's glorification of masculine bravado. Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders," who led the charge on San Juan Hill, became enduring symbols of courage and masculinity. The reporting of the Spanish-American War reflected a prevailing focus on the human struggle to survive amid harsh conditions.

Stephen Crane's "The Open Boat" is a masterful exploration of human experience through the lens of literary style and technique. The narrative is celebrated for its innovative use of a shifting point of view, its commitment to Realism and Naturalism, and its evocative setting. At its core, the story examines the precarious position of humans amidst the indifferent forces of nature.

Point of View

One of the most striking features of "The Open Boat" is Crane's unusual use of a shifting point of view. Throughout the narrative, the perspective alternates among the crew members and an objective observer, creating a multifaceted representation of the characters' shared ordeal. This technique blurs the lines of individual perception, suggesting an archetypal response to their dire circumstances. The absence of clear speaker identification in dialogues further reinforces the collective experience of the crew. Despite this shared perspective, the correspondent stands out as the sole character whose inner thoughts are distinctly articulated, possibly due to his writer’s inclination to capture and express his experiences.

Critics have debated whether this shifting perspective hampers character development. However, the focus of the story is less on the evolution of individual characters and more on their unified confrontation with fear and anger in the face of imminent death. Crane vividly captures the sensations and emotions of this near-death experience, underlining the characters' inability to fully comprehend their situation. The narrative's shifting point of view emphasizes the characters' struggle to interpret their experiences, underscoring a collective failure to derive meaning even as they survive the ordeal.

Realism

Crane's "The Open Boat" exemplifies the Realistic and Naturalistic movements that dominated the late 19th century, rejecting sentimentality in favor of stark, accurate depictions of life. The story offers a "photographically" vivid portrayal of the men's struggle against the sea, drawing readers into the harsh reality of their predicament. By doing so, Crane fulfills the Realist mission to mirror life’s complexities without moral judgement, presenting raw depictions of adversity and survival.

Aligned with Naturalistic themes, Crane delves into the tension between human agency and environmental determinism. The story questions whether the crew can influence their fate or if they are mere subjects to nature's whims. This is poignantly illustrated when the correspondent encounters an overpowering underwater current, highlighting the natural forces that render human efforts futile. His eventual rescue by a wave suggests survival is at the mercy of unpredictable natural forces rather than personal endeavor.

Setting

The setting of "The Open Boat"—the vast, tumultuous sea—serves as more than just a backdrop; it is integral to the thematic and symbolic fabric of the story. Based on Crane's personal experience off the coast of Florida, the setting conveys a profound sense of vulnerability and insignificance in the face of nature’s indifferent vastness. The open sea, relentless wind, biting cold, and the ominous presence of a shark underscore the existential threat posed by nature.

In this precarious environment, the men’s struggle becomes emblematic of humanity’s broader encounter with natural forces. Their limited ability to impact their own survival highlights the minuscule power humans wield against the elements that sustain and simultaneously threaten them. The setting, therefore, encapsulates the story’s exploration of human frailty and resilience within the natural world.

Throughout "The Open Boat," Stephen Crane masterfully utilizes literary techniques to weave a narrative rich with symbolic meaning. The shifting point of view, the adherence to Realism and Naturalism, and the evocative setting collectively underscore the themes of shared human experience and the capriciousness of nature. Through this story, Crane invites readers to ponder the existential challenges faced by humans in an indifferent universe, leaving them to interpret the profound realities of life and survival.

The central theme in "The Open Boat" revolves around Naturalism versus individual responsibility. The group might ponder whether the men are stranded in the dinghy due to natural forces or societal influences. As they drift on the open sea, do they react realistically, or are they merely symbols supporting Crane's thesis? The group may also draw comparisons between "The Open Boat" and Joseph Conrad's sea narratives from the same era, particularly Lord Jim (1900; see separate entry) and "Youth" (1902; see separate entry).

1. Examine how Crane unveils the personalities of each man. Look for specific quotes or actions that reveal these traits.

2. Consider what Crane omits from the story and why these omissions are as significant as the included elements. What themes or issues would you expect in a shipwreck story, and why might Crane exclude them?

3. Identify several instances where the correspondent describes different aspects of nature. Discuss how this meteorological information aligns with the story's events.

4. Why does Crane not explore what happens to the men once they reach the shore? What is the significance of their arrival on land?

5. Naturalism as a philosophy posits that individuals are entirely constrained by their immediate environment. Discuss whether this philosophy is applicable in today's society.

6. How do Crane's imagery and writing style enhance the story's realism?

7. Although Crane was raised in a religious setting, he later moved into secular literary circles, took mistresses from brothels, traveled to exotic locations for his reporting, and covered three different wars. Do you think Crane was a victim of his society, or did he exercise free will in choosing his life path?

8. In 1897, Crane survived the wreck of the Commodore, which is believed to inspire "The Open Boat." Writing stories based on real events is not always effective. Identify the elements Crane uses to bring this real-life incident to life in his story.

9. As the correspondent narrates the story in retrospect, he reveals the impact survival has had on him. Discuss how he has changed.

"The Open Boat" is one of the rare stories by Stephen Crane where he portrays his characters in a completely positive light. From the outset, the characters are united in a brotherhood of humanity, standing together against a nature that is indifferent and unpredictable, and against the threat of death. As they struggle against the sea and the looming threat of death, they gain a deeper understanding of themselves and each other. They become "friends in a more curiously iron-bound degree than may be common."

Despite their concern for one another, their main objective is survival, and Crane emphasizes their collective effort. Through the correspondent's experiences, Crane reflects the changes occurring in the other men. The correspondent transitions from desperation, to hope in their teamwork, to resignation, to hope in rescue, to despair, to anger, and finally, to renewed hope in their cooperation. To navigate these emotions without burdening the others in the lifeboat, the correspondent keeps his feelings to himself, places immense trust in the captain, and maintains complete equality with the crew members. Crane never depicts the correspondent or any other member of the dinghy performing an act of individual heroism. Instead, heroism is defined as a willing interdependence, making each man a hero.

The concept of human interdependence is a recurring theme in Crane's work. "The Open Boat" offers definitions of heroism and camaraderie that feel authentic, even if they deviate from conventional expectations. Crane employs a mix of social roles to support his ideas of brotherhood and heroism. To create this blend, he names only one character, while the others are identified by their roles: captain, oiler, cook, and correspondent. Everyone in the dinghy (symbolizing all of humanity) is recognized by their contributions to the struggle against nature, rather than by their individual identities.

1890s: The Cuban quest for independence from Spain evolves into a cohesive political movement under the guidance of Jose Marti, after several failed, small-scale uprisings. American intervention in the conflict leads to Cuba gaining independence from Spain, followed by a period of U.S. occupation.

1997: Cuba, now a communist nation under Fidel Castro's rule, receives the remains of Castro's revolutionary companion, Ernesto "Che" Guevara, in October. Guevara had been killed in Bolivia thirty years prior.

1896: The United States' foreign policy is characterized by assertive imperialism, a stance promoted by the Republicans and the newly elected President, William McKinley. The U.S. government purchases Alaska in 1867 and annexes Hawaii in 1898. Following the Spanish-American War from 1898 to 1899, the United States extends its influence to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.

1990s: U.S. foreign policy is marked by interventionism. As a NATO member, the United States plays a role in mediating global conflicts, including those in the Middle East and Bosnia. In 1991, the United States engages in the Persian Gulf War to prevent Iraq from invading Kuwait.

Naturalism emerged as a response against the Victorian era's emphasis on propriety. Authors like Theodore Dreiser, in his work Sister Carrie (1900), along with others, began writing stories that depicted how people genuinely lived, spoke, and thought. These writers generally believed that humans are powerless against instincts and societal forces. Although much of Stephen Crane's work is naturalistic, "The Open Boat" shifts from pure Naturalism to psychological exploration. In "The Open Boat," Crane portrays real individuals with distinct personalities facing a formidable force. Instead of succumbing to instinct, they apply significant reasoning and effort to address their predicament. Crane later infused this theme of the struggle between larger forces and human choice with humor in "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky" (1900).

Perhaps due to the brevity of Crane's writing career, he consistently focused on a central theme: the interaction between individuals and their societies. In Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, Maggie is portrayed as a complete victim. Her family, boyfriend, and society push her into prostitution, leaving her with only one option—to take her own life. However, Crane does not ask us to mourn for Maggie or any specific person. The true tragedy lies in the overall condition of the Bowery. The actions of the characters merely underscore the harsh social conditions surrounding them. Regardless of their behavior, they are ultimately shaped by their environment.

Conversely, in The Red Badge of Courage (1895; see separate entry), our primary concern is with Henry Fleming's personal struggles rather than the social chaos around him. We empathize with his naive perceptions of war and do not judge his acts of cowardice harshly. Unlike Maggie, Fleming does not allow himself to be entirely consumed by society. While he may make poor choices, struggle with his social environment, and ultimately conform to societal expectations, he still exercises some degree of personal agency. Maggie, on the other hand, is completely overwhelmed by society and succumbs to it without resistance.

While readers and critics from Crane's time to the present have found the narrative of The Red Badge of Courage more compelling, Crane continued to delve into the helplessness of individuals within society. In "The Blue Hotel" (1898; see separate entry), for instance, a small group of men are confined together due to a storm. Crane illustrates how the different members of the group act, either considering or disregarding the impact of their actions on the group. Emotions and moods dominate the situation. The men fail to recognize the importance of the group over individual interests, leading to the death of one member and leaving another ridden with guilt.

"The Open Boat" can be found on video through the Film Video Library. This 29-minute black-and-white film was produced by the University of Michigan in 1965 as part of the "American Story Classics" series.

Sources
Berryman, John. ‘‘Stephen Crane: 'The Open Boat'.’’ In The Freedom of the Poet, pp. 168-84. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976.

Buitenhuis, Peter. ‘‘The Essentials of Life: 'The Open Boat' as Existentialist Fiction,’’ Modern Fiction Studies Vol. 3, 1959, pp. 243-50.

Crane, Stephen. ‘‘Stephen Crane's Own Story.’’ In American Literature: A Prentice Hall Anthology, edited by Emory Elliott, Prentice Hall, 1991.

Further Reading
Halliburton, David. The Color of the Sky: A Study of Stephen Crane, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
This insightful analysis of Crane's complete works highlights their philosophical dimensions and is organized thematically rather than by chronology or individual works. The title is inspired by the first line of "The Open Boat."

Nagel, James. Stephen Crane and Literary Impressionism, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980.
A compelling examination which proposes that Crane incorporated techniques from the impressionist art movement into his writing.