Mordred, who is now grown. He is able finally to put Morgause’s plan for revenge into effect. He accuses Guenever of adultery, divides Camelot into warring camps, plots to overthrow Arthur and to marry Guenever, and begins the long war against Arthur. The novel’s center of moral and intellectual evil, Mordred is nevertheless a strangely sympathetic figure.

Lancelot

Lancelot, who is accused of adultery with Guenever. He escapes to his castle in France, where he is besieged by Arthur’s troops under the command of Gawain, whom he eventually kills. He then rushes to England to rescue Guenever from her imprisonment by Mordred.

Guenever

Guenever, who is now Mordred’s prisoner and is used as a pawn to draw Arthur into a decisive battle to take place on Salisbury plain.

Arthur

Arthur, who reviews his life while in his tent on the field of Salisbury on the night before the final battle with Mordred. He mourns the failure of Camelot and sees the future—the deaths of Mordred and himself, and Lancelot’s and Guenever’s exile to monastery and nunnery. He realizes that they all have been the innocent pawns of a fate that has cast them in predetermined roles in a drama that none ever quite understood or controlled.

The Once and Future King and The Book of Merlyn together constitute T. H. White’s retelling of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (1485). White began writing The Sword in the Stone in 1936; The Witch in the Wood and The Ill-Made Knight soon followed. The Book of Merlyn was completed in 1941 and was intended, along with The Candle in the Wind (which was later adapted for the 1961 musical Camelot, which was filmed in 1967), for simultaneous publication with the three previously published novels. When The Once and Future King finally appeared, it incorporated a number of the author’s revisions but not the concluding volume. The Book of Merlyn was not published until 1977. Although it rounds out the series, briefly describing the death of Arthur and the religious retirement of Lancelot and Guenever, it is chiefly a philosophical forum in which Arthur, Merlyn, and a number of animals debate the nature of humankind.

Merlyn guides the events of The Sword in the Stone. The magician tutors the young orphan Arthur (derisively nicknamed “the Wart” by his foster brother, Kay), at times magically turning him into a goose, an ant, a fish, and a hedgehog. Merlyn uses the natural world to demonstrate the various forms of government and impresses upon the future king the cruelty of aimless military strength. Under Merlyn’s influence, Arthur’s maturing philosophy reverses the common notion of the day and concludes that “right makes might.”

Upon the death of Uther Pendragon, a tournament is called to discover who might release the prophetic sword from the stone in which it is embedded, thereby indicating his right to become king. Serving as squire to Kay, Arthur is dispatched to retrieve Kay’s forgotten sword. He returns with the magic sword, ignorant of its significance. He is reluctantly proclaimed king. Merlyn reveals him to be the son of Pendragon. Living backward through time, Merlyn bears the wisdom of hindsight. He is, however, without foresight and therefore becomes easily muddled, fatefully forgetting to brief Arthur on the maternal side of his family tree.

When The Witch in the Wood was rejected on initial submission, the publisher expressed his discomfort with White’s handling of the subject matter. His discomfort was not, however, with the incestuous conception of Arthur’s son, Mordred; rather, a readership primed by the earlier book’s lighthearted tone might be appalled by the second book’s horrifying combination of twisted filial duty and seething hatred toward a dazzlingly erotic mother who demands affection but returns none. Retitled The Queen of Air and Darkness when it was included in The Once and Future King, this book introduces the young Orkney brothers, Gawaine, Garheris, Gareth, and Agravaine. The morality of the future knights ranges from confused to deranged. The problematic nature of Arthur’s struggle to establish his claim to the throne and to unify Britain, the story of which White threads into the Orkney narrative, becomes clear.

The ill-made knight of the third book is Lancelot. White’s “best knight of the world” is as hideously ugly as he is graceful and as deeply religious as he is sinful. He is driven to overcompensate for every deficiency, and he is torn by his love for both Arthur and Guenever. His greatest wish is to be allowed to make a miracle, which requires moral purity. In the end, although he is unfaithful to his king and to his lovers and although he twice loses his mind, is at last unhorsed, and fails the Grail Quest, he is allowed his miracle.

The disintegration of the Round Table is described in The Candle in the Wind. The Orkneys, who have long been in Arthur’s service despite the ancient enmity, have been joined by Mordred. The youngest brother poisons the hard-won tranquillity of Arthur’s reign and expertly prods his brothers into exposing Guenever’s adultery, thereby initiating the events that force Arthur to make disastrous war on his best knight and best friend. As Arthur lays siege to Lancelot’s castle, Mordred treacherously assumes his father’s throne and Arthur returns to England for his fateful confrontation with his son.

*England

*England. The England of the legendary King Arthur, often called Gramarye, is a totally imaginary realm. T. H. White’s narrator refers to the historical kings of England as mythical, and other real and imaginary characters such as John Ball and Robin Hood (here called Robin Wood) are anachronistically jumbled into Arthur’s time period.

White’s mythical kingdom can be divided into two periods: before and after Arthur’s succession. Before Arthur, England is a savage realm, “without civilization,” in which might makes right. The narrator is careful to point out that the feudal system was not inherently bad; under good lords, such as Sir Ector, the peasants are well treated. Indeed, at times the narrator’s descriptions of lower-class life resemble the romantic imaginings of the Merrie England school of English history, represented by writers such as G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc. Even England’s weather is tame. According to the narrator, the greatest modern fault in imagining life in the Middle Ages is to base one’s views on the pale and bare ruins of the era that remain in modern times. Arthur’s England was, according to the narrator, an almost inconceivable riot of colors.

During Arthur’s reign, England becomes a much safer place after the abolition of Fort Mayne, the force of might. Lawyers and legalisms take over, and the realm begins to resemble the one described by Thomas Carlyle in Past and Present (1843), where a child with a sack of gold could walk from one end of England to another without being accosted. But even justice has its limits, and Arthur’s England is already crumbling when the novel ends.

Camelot

Camelot. Mythical seat of King Court’s court. Both Camelot and London are frequently mentioned in White’s narrative, but it is difficult to tell which of them is England’s primary city.

Castle of the Forest Sauvage

Castle of the Forest Sauvage. Castle of Arthur’s foster father, Sir Ector, where Arthur (who is called “Wart” as a boy) is raised under the tutelage of Merlin. There and in the surrounding forest, he is taught by being transformed into different beasts. Although his surroundings themselves seem typical (such as the moat in which he is a fish), his lessons are definitely not. In the ant farm, for example, he encounters a society not far removed from the totalitarian human society depicted in George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949).

The Forest Sauvage itself, like Sherwood Forest, is described as being incomparably larger and wilder than modern forests; however, during Wart’s adventures there (finding Merlin, rescuing the prisoners from the Castle Chariot), the forest does not seem much harsher than those of modern times.

Castles

Castles. Descriptions of the various castles throughout the novel stress the vibrant and rich colors with which they were adorned, both inside and out. The stained glass windows, for example, that form so prominent a part of their construction, make their interiors glow: “They were in a magic world of gems, a glade under trees whose leaves were jewels.”

Castle Chariot and Dunlothian Castle, the homes of Arthur’s half-sisters Morgan le Fay and Morgause, are surmounted by towers with weather-cocks of carrion crows. Castle Chariot, in its enchanted form, is made entirely of food, the total effect of which is nauseating, rather than tempting. Dunlothian Castle, home to Sir Gawaine and his brothers, is run-down and dilapidated, emblematic of the passing of power from the older Celts to the newer invaders, symbolized by Arthur and his father.

Merlin’s cottage

Merlin’s cottage. Home of the court magician Merlin. As befits a wizard, Merlin’s dwellings are crammed full of unusual and abstruse objects, some of which do not belong to his time period, such as a gun case, an encyclopedia, and a set of cigarette cards.

Justice Roome

Justice Roome. One of the few interior locations described in any detail, this room is where Arthur is forced to pass judgment on Lancelot and Guinevere. Its boxlike walls are covered with tapestries that illustrate stories of justice from the Old Testament. However, as Arthur discovers at the end of the novel, justice is not enough to overcome the human ills he first sees illustrated during his youthful animal transformations: “Suspicion and fear: possessiveness and greed: resentment for ancestral wrong.” The cures for these ills lies far beyond the ken of Camelot.

The Once and Future King takes place in England during the Dark Ages, around the year 1200, in a land Arthur refers to as Gramarye. Most historians believe that the real Arthur—if he existed—lived much earlier, likely in the fifth century. Although White provides numerous details about life in medieval England, he purposefully includes modern elements that couldn't have existed during the story's timeframe, like cannons and top hats. He incorporates these anachronisms partly for comedic effect but also to illustrate that the human issues of the Dark Ages were akin to those of the twentieth century.

White's most distinctive technique in The Once and Future King is his ability to shift between comedic and tragic tones. The narrative begins with humor, transitions through tragedy, and concludes with a hint of rebirth and renewal. The first book, which focuses on Wart's joyful childhood, is mainly comedic and satirical. Despite the lighthearted nature of the story, a darker message lingers beneath the surface. For example, the famous comedic scene where King Pellinore and Sir Grummore engage in a fight not only mocks medieval combat but also highlights the unsettling reality that both characters feel compelled to fight. Wart's transformations into various animals, while entertaining, also challenge human beliefs and behaviors. The conflict between Might and Right takes on a more serious tone in the second book, with hints of impending tragedy woven throughout the middle sections. In the final book, White moves beyond tragedy, even as the story adopts a somber tone. Although Arthur's idealistic vision for Camelot fails and he faces death at Mordred's hands, he retains hope for the future, with the book concluding on the note, "The Beginning."

White also employs anachronism skillfully for both humor and thematic depth. Merlyn and Morgan le Fay exemplify the comedic use of anachronism, particularly in their homes. The wizard's cottage is a fascinating mix of mythical creatures and the Encyclopedia Britannica, while Morgan's residence features various twentieth-century comforts and gadgets. More subtly, White uses anachronism to offer thematic insights into the material. Throughout the narrative, medieval and modern life intertwine, highlighting both their contrasts and similarities. Additionally, White uses anachronistic language to create realistic character portrayals. The Arthurian characters speak not in grand or epic tones but rather in a contemporary, conversational style; for instance, Lancelot and Guenevere affectionately refer to each other as Lance and Jenny.

In his reinterpretation of the Arthurian legend, White places more focus on the tragic aspects compared to Malory. White's central tragic theme—the idea that past sins return to destroy the hero—shapes the narrative and echoes themes found in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex (circa 429 B.C.) and other Greek tragedies.

Since readers are already acquainted with the characters and the story's conclusion, White is free to explore narrative and philosophical digressions, such as Wart's transformations, King Pellinore's chase of the Questing Beast, or discussions on the nature of civilization. The narrative's depth is enhanced by a rich style—White's prose, even in passages that are only tangential to the main action, has received widespread acclaim.

One of White's notable strengths is his characterization. He breathes life into these mythical figures, making them relatable human beings. This human dimension allows him to casually refer to the Queen as "Jenny" or the powerful Arthur as "Wart." He employs psychology to gain insights into characters and actions but avoids falling into psychological jargon or allowing his observations to disrupt the story.

White's truly distinctive accomplishment is his vivid descriptions of what it feels like to be an animal, such as a fish or a bird. The scenes where Merlyn transforms Wart into various creatures are, for many readers, the most unforgettable parts of the novel. These passages are the result of years of meticulous observation of the natural world.

Broadly speaking, the only precursor to White is Sir Thomas Malory. In the fifteenth century, Malory was the first to compile the entire collection of Arthurian legends in his work, Le Morte D'arthur (1485). While the legend has been retold several times in the twentieth century, none came before White's interpretation. In terms of a comic-ironic perspective on Arthurian romance, White's sole forerunner was Mark Twain. Twain's critical view of the Middle Ages sharply contrasted with White's deep admiration for that era.

T.H. White initially planned for his Arthurian tales to be released as a series of five books. The final installment, The Book of Merlyn, was finished in 1941, right after the fourth book, The Candle in the Wind. However, his publishers declined to release the full collection due to a paper shortage during wartime. While the shortage was a genuine issue, many critics believe the real reason was that the publishers found The Book of Merlyn too philosophical, political, and critical of humanity's failure to achieve peace. Regardless, White was adamant about including The Book of Merlyn, which delayed publication until 1958. At that time, the fourth book was incorporated into The Once and Future King, but The Book of Merlyn was left out. Nonetheless, two pivotal scenes—one where Arthur is transformed into an ant, and another where he becomes a wild goose—were taken from The Book of Merlyn and added to The Sword in the Stone.

The Book of Merlyn was eventually published as a standalone work in 1977. Although generally viewed as the weaker link in The Once and Future King series, there's no doubt that White meant for it to conclude the saga. It picks up where The Candle in the Wind leaves off, on the eve of Arthur's final battle. Merlyn returns to offer Arthur some last words of wisdom and allows him to say farewell to some of his animal companions. This novel ties the story back to its origins and provides a fitting conclusion. Even if it doesn't quite match the quality of The Once and Future King, fans of the earlier books might still find it a worthwhile read.

The Once and Future King was transformed into a Broadway musical named Camelot, which premiered at the Majestic Theater in New York City on December 3, 1960. The musical's book and lyrics were crafted by Alan Jay Lerner, with music by Frederick Loewe, and directed by Moss Hart. This team had just wrapped up the hugely successful Broadway show My Fair Lady, a musical version of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion (1913). Critics offered mixed reviews of Camelot, noting it didn't measure up to My Fair Lady. However, the cast, featuring Richard Burton as Arthur, Julie Andrews as Guenever, Robert Goulet as Lancelot, and Roddy McDowall as Mordred, garnered praise. The lavish sets and costumes contributed to the play's popularity.

The film adaptation of Camelot (1967), with Richard Harris as Arthur and Vanessa Redgrave as Guenever, received similar critical feedback as the stage version. Critics remarked that it was overly talkative with insufficient romance, yet it enjoyed widespread public appeal.

In 1963, Walt Disney Productions released an animated feature of The Sword in the Stone, targeting a younger audience. Disney prominently featured the scenes where characters transform into animals.

Crane, John K. T. H. White. New York: Twayne, 1974. This is the inaugural and remains one of the most succinct summaries of White's life and literary contributions. It features a fifty-page analysis of The Once and Future King and evaluates White's other works.

Gallix, Francois, ed. T. H. White: Letters to a Friend. Gloucester, England: Alan Sutton, 1984. This compilation consists of letters from White to his friends L. J. and Mary Potts. L. J. Potts, who taught White at Cambridge, along with his wife, developed a friendship with White. These letters are significant as White often sought literary counsel from his former teacher.

Garnett, David. The White/Garnett Letters. London: Jonathan Cape and Chatto and Windus, 1968. Garnett was arguably White's closest confidant and one of his most fervent advocates.

Warner, Sylvia T. T. H. White: A Biography. New York: Viking Press, 1967. This is the definitive biography of T. H. White.