Themes and Characters
The central character in The Once and Future King is Arthur, whom Merlyn fondly calls "Wart." One of the novel's strengths is its focus on Arthur; in many other iterations of the Arthurian legend, the spotlight often shifts to Lancelot and Guenever.
White presents Arthur not as an invincible legendary hero but as a genuine, honest individual. Though not particularly clever, he is eager to learn from Merlyn's teachings. This is particularly evident in The Sword in the Stone, where Merlyn transforms Wart into various animals to teach him about nature. Even after Merlyn's departure, Arthur grapples with the challenge of ruling justly and maintaining peace in his kingdom.
Arthur's primary weakness, which contributes to his downfall, is his excessive kindness. This trait makes him reluctant to see the malice in those around him. He chooses to ignore Queen Morgause's malevolence and fails to acknowledge the affair between Lancelot and Guenever. Although Lancelot and Guenever are fundamentally good, their actions are destructive and threaten everything Arthur has worked to build. Yet, Arthur remains in denial about the situation.
The novel's most charming character is the wizard Merlyn, who "lives backward in time," recalling the future and predicting the past. Merlyn articulates White's philosophy and occasionally indulges in overly lengthy speeches. However, White tempers Merlyn's preachiness. Despite being the most intelligent character in the story, Merlyn is also a bit of a bumbler, forgetting to provide Arthur with crucial information that could save the kingdom.
Lancelot is perhaps the novel's most complex character. Although he is the greatest of all knights, White depicts him as plagued by an ambiguous secret flaw, a vague darkness that keeps him from finding peace within himself. Lancelot is acutely aware of his imperfections. He realizes that his affair with the Queen violates his church's laws and does not wish to harm his dear friend Arthur. Yet, he cannot bring himself to stop. Through Lancelot's struggle, White illustrates a fundamentally good man wrestling with his inability to meet his own standards. In many respects, Lancelot is the novel's most human character.
Guenever is less thoroughly developed compared to Lancelot or Arthur. Throughout his writing career, White struggled with portraying women and felt more comfortable depicting animals' thoughts than those of women. He intended for Guenever to seem "good," and as the narrator, he frequently makes excuses for her, but ultimately, she comes across as somewhat selfish. She lacks the idealism and high-mindedness of Arthur and the religious devotion of Lancelot.
The true villain of the book is Queen Morgause, Arthur's half-sister. She seduces Arthur, leading to the birth of Mordred, who will ultimately bring about the downfall of the Round Table. Although Arthur is unaware of their familial connection, both he and Morgause commit the sin of incest. Arthur is not without blame, as he knowingly engages in adultery with Morgause, who is married to King Lot. Ironically, this is the same offense for which he later seeks justice against Guenever and Lancelot.
Morgause's malevolence is particularly unsettling because she demands complete devotion from her sons while offering none in return. Her sons—Mordred, Gareth, Gaheris, Gawaine, and Agravaine—become Arthur's chief adversaries, having been poisoned against him. Arthur recognizes that Morgause's sons have legitimate reasons to oppose him. Through this, White illustrates that those who seem like enemies often have understandable motivations for their beliefs and actions.
Education is a central theme in The Once and Future King . White believes that a deep understanding of nature's forces is essential to human education, culminating in self-reliance. At the end of the first book, when Arthur attempts...
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to pull the sword from the stone, he envisions his animal friends encouraging him to harness all his abilities.
Another key theme of the story is the search for a solution to war. As the narrative unfolds, Arthur's perspective on the appropriate use of power evolves. He transitions from the realization that "might" is not right, to the hope that might can serve justice, to the conviction that might should not be used at all. Ultimately, he believes that people should seek God through the pursuit of the Holy Grail, and that a society founded on justice can help individuals lead civilized lives.
As Arthur's thoughts develop, White introduces readers to various philosophical concepts. However, the story's tragic elements overshadow the philosophical musings. Arthur's father sinned by taking another man's wife, and Arthur sinned by committing adultery with his half-sister Morgause. These transgressions set off a chain of events that ultimately shatter Arthur's dreams.
Characters
In the traditional Arthurian legend, it is paradoxical that King Arthur is one of the least distinct characters among many. This is somewhat inevitable because he embodies the role of a hero-king, more of a mythical figure than an individual. However, White overcomes this limitation by depicting Arthur's journey from youth to adulthood. The young Wart is depicted realistically and is effectively contrasted with his stepbrother, Kay. Wart's enthusiasm for life, his compassion and sensitivity towards nature and its creatures, and his strong moral principles all set him apart as a promising young prince. As King Arthur, he comes to understand his destiny is marked by tragic failure, yet at the end, as he calmly prepares for his final battle, he feels "clear-headed" and "ready to begin again."
Merlyn is the most original and unforgettable character, taking on the role of Wart's mentor. His ability to live backward through time grants him unique insights unavailable to others, often drawing moral lessons from recent history. In a lengthy conversation with Arthur about whether Might should enforce Right, he references a certain Austrian who shared that belief. His frequent mix-up of memory and prophecy provides humor, as he struggles to determine whether an event has already happened or is yet to occur. Another comedic element is his occasional absent-minded spells that go awry.
Merlyn's appearance is notable yet somewhat humorous. He dons a tall, pointed hat, and his long, flowing robe is adorned with zodiac signs and other mystical symbols. He has a long white beard and wields a wand made of lignum. Most of the time, his owl, Archimedes, sits on his shoulder, nesting in his hair and leaving droppings on his robe. The wizard partially represents a self-portrait of the author, who also had an owl named Archimedes.
Despite his comedic traits, Merlyn is a serious character. He is an ideal tutor for Wart, in part because of his connection with nature, allowing him to transform Wart into various animals using magic. He also provides the mature King Arthur with wise counsel on governing the kingdom. Ultimately, it is the memory of the wizard's teachings that encourages Arthur on the eve of his downfall. White's portrayal of Merlyn is a masterful characterization.
Another uniquely original character is Lancelot, the protagonist of the third book, The Ill-Made Knight (1940). White reinterprets the tradition of the "mal fait" knight to imply both physical unattractiveness and moral flaws. Lancelot possesses an extraordinarily unattractive face, which he often examines in the reflective surface of a kettle. Partly because of this flaw, he is driven to become the greatest knight in the world. This contrast between his unfortunate physical appearance and his lofty spiritual ideals highlights Lancelot's internal struggle. White's portrayal of Lancelot is, therefore, far more intricate than the depictions found in medieval texts. Constantly torn between his sexual urges and his spiritual goals—expressed through his love for both Guenevere and Arthur—Lancelot strives to attain a godlike state. Ultimately, despite his guilt, the ill-made knight is allowed to perform a minor miracle by healing a wounded comrade, achieving a moral triumph though he is not fated to find the Grail he seeks.
White's antagonists are not as nuanced as his protagonists. Morgause, the central figure in The Queen of Air and Darkness (1939), and Mordred are more symbolic of evil than fully developed characters. Morgause, supposedly inspired by White's own mother, is depicted as cruel, self-serving, and incapable of love without exerting control. As a destructive force, she nearly embodies a malevolent destiny. Her seduction of Arthur, leading to the incestuous birth of Mordred, and her influence over her four sons play significant roles in Arthur's eventual downfall.
Mordred emerges as the other principal villain. On one hand, he is the vindictive offspring of an adulterous and incestuous union, bent on destroying his culpable father. On another level, he symbolizes pure evil, frequently clad in black and committed to destruction. His life's mission is to annihilate the man who fathered him and the ideals of Camelot that he represents. Unrelentingly malicious, he takes pleasure in the discord between Arthur and Lancelot and boldly attempts to wed Guenevere during the king's absence.
Guenevere, the primary female character, is neither a hero nor a villain. She lacks the strength of character and does not share the idealism of her husband or her lover, often wavering between fidelity and betrayal. Self-centered, she is also pitiable in her persistent loneliness, as both men are frequently away on quests or engaged in battles. The only other noteworthy female character is Elaine, who seduces Lancelot and bears Galahad, the son destined to achieve the Grail. A lesser version of Guenevere, she is also somewhat pitiable and intentionally selfish.
White demonstrates remarkable talent in crafting minor comic characters, particularly in The Sword in the Stone (1938). Madame Mim, a fairy tale witch, competes with Merlyn in magical prowess. In one scene, they engage in a spectacular spell battle, creating a charmingly humorous moment. Like Merlyn, Morgan le Fay is another enchantress who seems out of her time, with her home featuring items like chocolates and cigarettes. Wart's adoptive father, Sir Ector, is portrayed as a satirical version of an English country squire. King Pellinore humorously represents the medieval knight, and the object of his quest, the Questing Beast, is an affectionate creature who adores her pursuer and feels forlorn when he temporarily stops chasing her. Even Merlyn's owl, Archimedes, is given a distinct personality, offering wise and sardonic remarks to his master.
Many characters from Arthurian legend appear in White's extensive retelling, though most play smaller roles. Morgause's four sons, for instance, are briefly active, but only Gawain is portrayed with depth. Although he is aware of the complexities of morality, he is nonetheless determined to kill his friend Lancelot, who inadvertently caused the deaths of his two younger brothers.