The Old Man and the Sea, although usually called a novel, is not divided into chapters; yet, at 27,500 words, it is too long to be called a short story. Efforts to split it into recognizably separate parts are haphazard at best, because its simple action moves along a timeline of morning, noon, sunset, midnight, and dawn, which is then repeated, and with little reminiscing by the protagonist and no interpolations by the author.

The action may be arbitrarily, but perhaps helpfully, divided into introduction, three dramatic sections, denouement, and coda. In this introduction, the reader learns that for forty days Santiago fished off Havana in the Gulf Stream, aided by his friend and admirer Manolin, and then for forty-four more days alone, all without success. In part 1, the action begins. On the eighty-fifth day, Santiago rows his skiff “far out” and at noon hooks an enormous male marlin. In part 2, the fish is so strong that it tows Santiago’s skiff northwest into the night and beyond. The following afternoon, the old man first sees his quarry when it suddenly surfaces. All through the second night, it tows the old man, whose hands are cut and whose back is strained. It circles at dawn, and Santiago harpoons it at noon and lashes it alongside the skiff. In part 3, a mako shark attacks and devours part of the marlin. Santiago kills the shark, but his fear that more sharks will follow the bloody wake is soon confirmed by their awesome appearance. In the denouement, the scavengers complete the ruin of his prize, leaving only the marlin’s skeleton, which he brings to shore. Bone-tired, he sleeps again in his shack. In the coda, Manolin brings Santiago coffee next morning, and the two determine to fish again.

Most of the time, Santiago is the only person whose words and thoughts are recorded. When he talks aloud to himself, as he often does, Ernest Hemingway puts his exact words within quotation marks. At other times, his unspoken thoughts are recorded but without the use of quotation marks and with the pronouns “he” and “I” used without evident distinction.

The Old Man and the Sea displays the classical unity of time, place, and action—with a distinct beginning, long middle, and end. It comprises three days and nights, occurs mostly on the vast sea, and presents one sequence of events. It is knit together by skillful foreshadowing, largely through Santiago’s repeated refrain of going out too far, his frequently calling his quarry his “brother,” his thoughts about baseball (especially his hero Joe DiMaggio), and his dreaming about playful lions that he saw long ago on African beaches. Manolin is involved in the action only in the first several pages and in the last few pages of the story. Thus, the novella has a sonata form, with Manolin constituting the short first and third motifs and a man pitted against the sea and its creatures as the more elaborate second motif.

Caribbean Sea

The Caribbean Sea is the branch of the North Atlantic Ocean that surrounds Cuba. The sea contributes to the sense of fatalism in the primary character. Alone on the vast expanses of the sea, Santiago, the “old man” of the title, suggests a symbolic understanding of human alienation amid an indifferent world. The sea functions as a backdrop for his reflections of his interior being, thus reinforcing themes of loneliness, struggle, and courage. Ernest Hemingway says of Santiago, “He looked across the sea and knew how alone he was now.” His loneliness, however, is also comforted by the sea, as he knows that no man is ever completely alone on the sea.

The desolation of the open sea overwhelms the character, suggesting man’s relative insignificance, yet in this vast space, a courageous man finds beauty and solace by understanding his relationship to the environment. For Santiago, this relationship is like that of a man and woman (again reinforcing the man’s solitary existence). He understands the sea as la mar, a feminine noun in Spanish, something to be loved, something that gives or withholds great favors. In contrast, others understand the sea to be masculine, el mar, a rival or even an enemy.

Despite Santiago’s understanding of the aesthetic nature of his relationship to the sea, the sea itself is ultimately a violent, dangerous place on which survival becomes a primary goal and the ability to survive is the cardinal virtue. It is a place where predators feed on lesser forms of life, and Santiago’s struggle with the fish and with the sharks who feed on it illustrates that man also participates within this vicious cycle. Human existence is about surviving in a beautiful but hostile environment.

Santiago’s Shack

This place reveals the man’s poverty. Symbolically, it functions as a place where he retreats each night in humility before going out at daylight to fish and survive. It is a returning to the womb, demonstrating man’s longed-for comfort in stark contrast to the hostilities on the sea.

Havana

Havana is the capital and principal city of Cuba, in sight of which Santiago has long done his fishing. Its opulent urban setting contrasts with Santiago’s simple village and his daily struggle to catch and sell fish.

Cuba and the United States in the Early 1950s

Throughout most of the 1950s, the relationship between Cuba and the United States remained generally amicable, continuing a trend that had been in place since 1934. This year marked the repeal of the Platt Amendment, which had previously granted the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs. However, the U.S. ownership of numerous Cuban sugar mills persisted as a contentious issue. In 1952, President Prio Socarras was ousted in a military coup led by General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. Batista had earlier ruled as a dictator from 1933 to 1940 and would govern again until 1959, when Fidel Castro overthrew him. Despite moving to Ketchum, Idaho, shortly after Castro and his followers toppled Batista's regime, Hemingway had supported both the overthrow and what he termed the “historical necessity” of Castro's revolution.

Cuban Culture

In the first half of the twentieth century, Cuban culture was significantly characterized by an ambivalent attitude toward the Catholic Church. Unlike many other Latin American countries, the church and state in Cuba were constitutionally separate during this period. Nevertheless, due to its long Spanish heritage, Cuba remained heavily influenced by Catholic cultural norms. This resulted in a paradox where eighty-five percent of the population identified as Catholic, but only ten percent actively practiced the faith. This cultural context is reflected in The Old Man and the Sea. For instance, when Santiago struggles with the marlin, he says, “I am not religious, but I will say ten Our Fathers and ten Hail Marys that I should catch this fish, and I promise to make a pilgrimage to the Virgin of Cobre if I catch him.” Later, after killing the fish, Santiago questions if it is a sin to hope he can return to shore with the fish's meat intact, but he quickly dismisses the thought. “Do not think about sin,” he thought. “There are enough problems now without sin. Also, I have no understanding of it.”

Like other Latin Americans, Cubans place significant importance on the intrinsic worth of the individual. Under the code of personalismo, success in life is defined by the achievement of one's spiritual potential or personal destiny, rather than financial or career accomplishments. Consequently, Santiago is revered as a skilled and unique individual, even though he hasn't caught a fish in three months. Through the perspectives of Manolin and the omniscient narrator, Santiago is portrayed as a heroic and majestic figure who, like Odysseus or Christ, has endured a great ordeal and serves as a model to emulate.

Machismo, or the concept of manliness, holds significant importance as a male aspiration in traditional Latin American culture. This ideal of machismo is nurtured through various avenues such as military service, athletic achievements, intellectual pursuits, and sexual prowess. While most men are not expected to fully embody the machismo ideal, striving towards these qualities brings them closer to it. For instance, Santiago is admired for his remarkable physical endurance. He takes immense pride in having defeated a formidable Black man in an all-day hand-wrestling contest in Casablanca during his youth.

Santiago also highly values mental attributes, including his self-confidence and extensive knowledge of fishing techniques. His confidence in these abilities is so strong that he can wager “everything [the fish] has against only my will and my intelligence.” It is frequently observed that Hemingway, in his own life, sought to challenge himself intellectually through his friendships and writing, as well as physically through activities like boxing, war service, hunting, fishing, and bullfighting.

Although Hemingway is sometimes criticized for what some interpret as a fascination with violence for its own sake, it is easy to see why the Latin American ideal of machismo resonated with him.

The story is set in the 1940s. While the beginning and ending scenes occur on land in a quaint Cuban fishing village, the primary setting is the Gulf Stream near Cuba. Hemingway views the ocean as the final vast, uncharted frontier on the planet, and this narrative delves profoundly into the essence of this enigmatic environment.

Point of View

All novels employ at least one perspective, or viewpoint, to narrate the story. This viewpoint might be from a single character or multiple characters in succession. The Old Man and the Sea utilizes an omniscient, or “all-knowing,” perspective where the author serves as an unseen narrator. This omniscient point of view allows the author to observe and narrate the story from a broader angle, providing insight into the thoughts of the old man and other characters. At the story's outset, the omniscient narrator conveys not only the dialogue between Santiago and the boy but also the sentiments of the other fishermen. “The older fishermen . . . looked at him and were sad. But they did not show it.”

Setting

The Old Man and the Sea is set entirely in a small fishing village near Havana, Cuba, and in the waters of the Gulf Stream, a warm current that flows north and then east of Cuba in the Caribbean Sea. Hemingway first visited Cuba in 1928 and later lived on the coast near Havana for nineteen years, starting in 1940, giving him extensive knowledge of the area. References to Joe Dimaggio and a series of games between the Yankees and the Detroit Tigers, where Dimaggio recovered from a slump, have allowed scholars to date the novel's events to mid-September 1950. Manolin also reminds readers that September is the peak season for blue marlin fishing. The story spans three days, the duration of the struggle with the fish, but as Manolin reminds the old man, winter is approaching, and he will need a warm coat.

Structure

Much like Santiago's three-day epic battle with the fish, Hemingway's story is divided into three main sections. The first part involves preparing for the fishing trip. The second part covers the journey out to sea, catching the fish, and being towed by it, which spans the first two days and part of the third day. The final part is the return trip home. Another method to analyze the story is by applying a dramatic structure devised by Aristotle. In the opening section, or rising action, readers are introduced to various complications surrounding the conflict. This includes the other fishermen's belief that Santiago is permanently unlucky versus Santiago and the boy's belief that the old man will still catch a fish. For instance, readers learn that some villagers, like Pedrico, the restaurant owner, offer help to Santiago, while others avoid him. The climax of the story occurs when Santiago kills the fish, marking the point where the hero's fortunes begin to decline. This turning point becomes apparent when sharks start attacking the fish, leading inevitably to the resolution (or denouement) of the drama. During this resolution, Santiago, lacking effective weapons to fight off the sharks, must watch helplessly as they strip the fish's carcass of all its remaining meat. Reflecting the influence of modern short story writers, Hemingway has added an epiphany, or revelation of Santiago's true character, to the ending. This moment is highlighted when the author implicitly contrasts the tourists' ignorance of the marlin's skeleton's true identity with Santiago's quiet knowledge of his skill. Additionally, Santiago's hope is symbolized by his repeated dreams of the lions on the beach, indicating that he believes he will fish successfully again.

Symbolism

A symbol can be described as a person, place, or object that signifies something beyond its literal meaning. Santiago, for instance, is often likened to Christ due to his suffering. His bleeding hands, the way he carries the boat mast like a cross, and how he lies on his bed with his arms outstretched all draw clear parallels to Christ's crucifixion. In this interpretation, Manolin is viewed as a disciple who admires and loves Santiago as his mentor.

In this context, the sea might symbolize earthly existence. According to Genesis, humans were created by God to have dominion over all other living creatures, including the fish in the sea. However, humans like Santiago still endure suffering due to Adam and Eve’s original sin of eating the forbidden fruit. Santiago, though, mentions that he does not grasp the concept of sin. He can also be seen more broadly as a symbol of all humanity, struggling to survive yet continually hoping and dreaming for better things.

Hemingway himself appeared indifferent to the various interpretations of his characters, settings, and plot. He once remarked that he "tried to make a real old man, a real boy, a real sea and a real fish and real sharks. But if I made them good and true enough they would mean many things."

The Old Man and the Sea features clear prose and a traditional narrative structure and style. Technically, this is likely Hemingway’s most conventional piece of fiction. The modernist techniques—such as indirection, implication, allusion, omission, and unexplained juxtaposition—that Hemingway intricately uses in In Our Time (1925; see separate entry) and other works are absent in this parable-like story. This absence contributes to its broad appeal, making it Hemingway's most widely read work.

Take, for instance, his symbolic portrayal of Santiago as a Christ-figure, or at least as someone whose suffering mirrors that of Christ. After sharks attack his marlin, Santiago exclaims “Ay”; Hemingway then notes that “there is no translation for this word and perhaps it is just a noise such as a man might make, involuntarily, feeling the nail go through his hands and into the wood.” The novel’s many Christological references are overt and explicit, unlike the subtle hints found in Hemingway’s earlier modernist works.

Another noteworthy technical aspect is how the novel serves as an extended examination of Santiago’s character and consciousness, much like a traditional soliloquy or an interior monologue reveals character. The plot and action are exceptionally straightforward and direct, with pacing and timing handled in a conventional yet highly effective manner. For example, the great marlin makes its first appearance, leaping high out of the sea, exactly at the book’s midpoint. In The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway’s technical brilliance captivates the reader not through experimental forms and complex techniques but through vivid imagery, poetic descriptions of the sea and its creatures, and a compelling portrayal of Santiago. All of this is readily accessible to any reader.

Hemingway delves into Santiago’s inner thoughts in this quest narrative. Much like a traditional soliloquy or an interior monologue that reveals a character’s essence, this novella serves as an extended exploration of the old man’s persona.

Hemingway’s use of symbolism implies that Santiago represents a Christ-like figure. For instance, after the sharks attack his catch, Santiago exclaims, “Ay”; Hemingway notes that “there is no translation for this word and perhaps it is just a noise such as a man might make, involuntarily, feeling the nail go through his hands and into the wood.” Towards the book's conclusion, Santiago ascends the hill carrying the mast on his shoulder, symbolically mirroring Christ bearing the cross. Numerous “religious” images contribute to this symbolic motif, while other symbolism revolves around baseball and youthful dreams.

Although the book’s straightforward plot includes elements of suspense, its true essence lies in its stunning imagery, the poetic depiction of the sea, and the venerable character of the old man.

The moon had been up for a long time, but he slept on as the fish continued to pull steadily, guiding the boat into a tunnel of clouds.

The Old Man and the Sea delves deeply into humankind's connection with nature and our place within it. Santiago, a fisherman whose survival depends on catching fish, exhibits an intense love for nature and an exceptional awareness of his surroundings. His profound respect for nature is largely tied to his identity as a fisherman. Unlike outsiders who are merely tourists appreciating the "beauty of nature," Santiago's understanding of nature is deeply rooted in his experiences.

Another significant social theme is the importance of role models for the youth, highlighted through the Santiago-Manolin relationship. This bond underscores the value of mentors outside the family in a young man's growth. Their relationship also brings attention to the respect and care for the elderly and the isolation that can accompany aging. More crucially, Hemingway powerfully illustrates how the simplest and poorest individuals can embody the greatest human dignity and richness of character.

Additional Commentary

Few writers have captured the essence of nature, the depths of human character, and the duality of tragedy and triumph in human experience as Hemingway has. His work is rooted in timeless values: courage, precision, skill, honor, honesty, and dignity. Much of his writing carries a profound spiritual undertone, deeply religious yet never preachy. Hemingway confronts the truth of experience, regardless of its darkness or violence. He acknowledges the existence of evil, suffering, and death, while also focusing on the human endeavor to overcome adversity through values and behavior that lead to redemption.

Many readers may approach Hemingway with concerns about the violent and "macho" reputation of his work. The Old Man and the Sea does portray the inherent violence of nature and includes some passages that could be perceived as sexist. For instance, in an extended metaphor comparing the sea to a woman, Hemingway writes: "the old man always thought of [the sea] as feminine and as something that gave or withheld great favors, and if she did wild or wicked things it was because she could not help them. The moon affects her as it does a woman, he thought." However, Hemingway's overall vision and values remain positive and relevant to all humanity.

If one accepts the prevailing critical opinion, there are few literary works that precede The Old Man and the Sea. Moby-Dick (1851), another renowned sea-focused novel centered on the pursuit of a great creature, is occasionally mentioned as a precedent, but the similarities are largely superficial. Some have pointed out the biblical elements present in Hemingway’s narrative. Additionally, for its depiction of the sea and humanity's role within nature's grand design, Stephen Crane’s “The Open Boat” (1898) resonates with Hemingway’s work, and it is known that Hemingway admired Crane’s writing.

More relevant, however, might be works featuring characters of profound simplicity and dignity who engage with nature in a reverent manner. A particularly compelling example—and one Hemingway may have considered while writing The Old Man and the Sea—is William Faulkner’s Go Down, Moses (1942). Specifically, the sections of that novel involving Sam Fathers—a clear counterpart to Santiago—and hunting. Faulkner’s “The Old People” (1942) and “The Bear” (1942) portray a mentor-apprentice relationship between a wise, humble, yet proud old man (Sam Fathers) and a young boy (Ike McCaslin), a quest for a noble creature (the bear), and a rich, respectful depiction of nature.

In a broader sense, all of Hemingway’s works relate to The Old Man and the Sea since it serves as his final significant piece, encapsulating and refining the central themes present throughout his career. Specifically, Hemingway’s early work “Big Two-Hearted River: Part I & II,” written nearly thirty years prior to The Old Man and the Sea, delves into similar subject matter and themes. This story, which follows a young man fishing for trout alone in the north woods of Michigan, explores the important themes of humanity’s relationship with nature and the challenges of human suffering and endurance. However, “Big Two-Hearted River” should be considered the concluding chapter of the story-cycle In Our Time, which primarily focuses on the development of Nick Adams. Many other Hemingway stories and novels also tackle related themes: humanity’s connection to nature, fishing and hunting, and the dynamics between a young protagonist and an older, wiser character. Examples of these works include “Indian Camp,” “The Battler,” “My Old Man,” and “The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber.”

• The Old Man and the Sea was turned into a feature film in 1958, with Spencer Tracy playing Santiago and Felipe Pazos as the Boy. Produced by Warner Brothers, this movie has been lauded for its impressive visual effects, and its musical score received an Academy Award.
• In 1990, the story was adapted into a made-for-TV movie featuring Anthony Quinn, Gary Cole, Alexis Cruz, Patricia Clarkson, and Francesco Quinn.
• The novel is also available as a two-cassette audio recording, narrated by Charlton Heston.

Baker, Carlos. Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. This is one of the earliest and remains one of the finest critical analyses of Hemingway's works.

Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner’s, 1969. As the first comprehensive biography of Hemingway, this book continues to be the most reliable source for a balanced view of the man and his career.

Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. This is a helpful and accessible collection of Hemingway's interviews and statements.

The Hemingway Review. This journal publishes most of the significant new scholarly and critical work on Hemingway.

Moore, Gene M. “Ernest Hemingway.” In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Provides a valuable summary of Hemingway criticism and biography.

Reynolds, Michael. The Young Hemingway. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986. The initial volume in a multivolume biography of Hemingway, this discerning work is one of the most important and substantial biographies to emerge since Baker's seminal study.

Wagner, Linda W., ed. Ernest Hemingway: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987. Features some of the finest critical essays on Hemingway’s work. Notable pieces include William Faulkner's “Review of The Old Man and the Sea” and Linda W. Wagner's “The Poem of Santiago and Manolin.”

Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader’s Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. An informative guide to Hemingway’s literature.

Williams, Wirt. The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. This critical study includes a fascinating chapter on The Old Man and the Sea, analyzing it as both a tragedy and a “Christian fable.”

Sources

Baker, Carlos, ed. Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels. Scribner’s, 1962, pp. 132–72.

Beegel, Susan F. “Conclusion: The Critical Reputation of Ernest Hemingway.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 276.

Brenner, Gerry, and Earl Rovit. “The Structure of the Fiction.” In Ernest Hemingway, Revised Edition. Twayne, 1986, pp. 62–89.

Brenner, Gerry, ed. The Old Man and the Sea: The Story of a Common Man. Twayne, 1991.

Lynn, Kenneth. Hemingway. Simon and Schuster, 1987.

Young, Philip. Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1966, p. 274.

For Further Study

Burhans, Clifford. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In American Literature, January, 1960, p. 447. Burhans connects The Old Man and the Sea to Hemingway’s earlier works and sees it as a mature expression of the author’s philosophy.

Burhans, Clinton S., Jr. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 259–68. The critic portrays the novel as Hemingway’s “mature view of the tragic irony of man’s fate.”

Burwell, Rose Marie. Hemingway: The Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Burwell’s work has garnered significant acclaim for replacing the wound theory and notions of code heroes with new interpretations of Hemingway’s later works.

Griffith, John. “Rectitude in Hemingway’s Fiction: How Rite Makes Right.” In Hemingway in Our Time, edited by Richard Astro and Jackson T. Benson. Oregon State University Press, 1974, pp. 159–73. Griffith examines the author’s expressions of “ritual correctness and moral right.”

Kinnamon, Kenneth. “Hemingway and Politics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 149–69. Despite Hemingway’s noted individualism and disdain for politicians, Kinnamon argues for a consistent leftist thread in the author’s political philosophy.

Levin, Harry. “Observations on the Style of Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert P. Weeks. Prentice-Hall, 1962, pp. 72–85. Levin discusses Hemingway’s “power of connotation” and “subtle suggestion.”

Love, Glen. “Revaluing Nature: Towards an Ecological Criticism.” In Old West—New West: Centennial Essays, edited by Barbara H. Meldrum. University of Idaho Press, 1993. Love criticizes scholars for neglecting environmental issues and suggests that works like Hemingway’s profoundly address these topics.

Morgan, Kathleen, and Luis Losada. “Santiago and The Old Man and the Sea: A Homeric Hero.” In The Hemingway Review, Vol. 12, No. 1, Fall, 1992, pp. 35–51. The critics explore Homeric influences in the novel.

Morrison, Toni. “Disturbing Nurses and the Kindness of Sharks.” In Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992, pp. 63ff. Morrison’s multicultural interpretations of Hemingway, though not specifically referring to The Old Man and the Sea, suggest that multiculturalism can provide new insights into Hemingway’s work.

Plimpton, George. “An Interview with Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 19–37. This piece delves into Hemingway's writing processes and the methods he used in his novels.

Spilka, Mark. Hemingway’s Quarrel with Androgyny. University of Nebraska Press, 1990, p. 189. Spilka observes that despite his public image, Hemingway was heavily reliant on women and secretly felt a kinship with them throughout his life.

Sylvester, Bickford. “The Cuban Context of The Old Man and the Sea.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 243–68. This intriguing essay explores how Hemingway's deep understanding of local traditions, history, religion, and baseball enriches the narrative of his novel.

Waldmeir, Joseph. “Confiteor Hominem: Ernest Hemingway’s Religion of Man.” In Ernest Hemingway: Five Decades of Criticism, edited by Linda Welshimer Wagner. Michigan State University Press, 1974, pp. 144–52. The critic analyzes the Christian symbolism present in the novel.

Williams, Wirt. “The Old Man and the Sea: The Culmination.” In The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Louisiana State University Press, 1981, pp. 172–97. Williams examines the novel's "tragic action" as a battle of will.