Cuba and the United States in the Early 1950s

Throughout most of the 1950s, the relationship between Cuba and the United States remained generally amicable, continuing a trend that had been in place since 1934. This year marked the repeal of the Platt Amendment, which had previously granted the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs. However, the U.S. ownership of numerous Cuban sugar mills persisted as a contentious issue. In 1952, President Prio Socarras was ousted in a military coup led by General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. Batista had earlier ruled as a dictator from 1933 to 1940 and would govern again until 1959, when Fidel Castro overthrew him. Despite moving to Ketchum, Idaho, shortly after Castro and his followers toppled Batista's regime, Hemingway had supported both the overthrow and what he termed the “historical necessity” of Castro's revolution.

Cuban Culture

In the first half of the twentieth century, Cuban culture was significantly characterized by an ambivalent attitude toward the Catholic Church. Unlike many other Latin American countries, the church and state in Cuba were constitutionally separate during this period. Nevertheless, due to its long Spanish heritage, Cuba remained heavily influenced by Catholic cultural norms. This resulted in a paradox where eighty-five percent of the population identified as Catholic, but only ten percent actively practiced the faith. This cultural context is reflected in The Old Man and the Sea. For instance, when Santiago struggles with the marlin, he says, “I am not religious, but I will say ten Our Fathers and ten Hail Marys that I should catch this fish, and I promise to make a pilgrimage to the Virgin of Cobre if I catch him.” Later, after killing the fish, Santiago questions if it is a sin to hope he can return to shore with the fish's meat intact, but he quickly dismisses the thought. “Do not think about sin,” he thought. “There are enough problems now without sin. Also, I have no understanding of it.”

Like other Latin Americans, Cubans place significant importance on the intrinsic worth of the individual. Under the code of personalismo, success in life is defined by the achievement of one's spiritual potential or personal destiny, rather than financial or career accomplishments. Consequently, Santiago is revered as a skilled and unique individual, even though he hasn't caught a fish in three months. Through the perspectives of Manolin and the omniscient narrator, Santiago is portrayed as a heroic and majestic figure who, like Odysseus or Christ, has endured a great ordeal and serves as a model to emulate.

Machismo, or the concept of manliness, holds significant importance as a male aspiration in traditional Latin American culture. This ideal of machismo is nurtured through various avenues such as military service, athletic achievements, intellectual pursuits, and sexual prowess. While most men are not expected to fully embody the machismo ideal, striving towards these qualities brings them closer to it. For instance, Santiago is admired for his remarkable physical endurance. He takes immense pride in having defeated a formidable Black man in an all-day hand-wrestling contest in Casablanca during his youth.

Santiago also highly values mental attributes, including his self-confidence and extensive knowledge of fishing techniques. His confidence in these abilities is so strong that he can wager “everything [the fish] has against only my will and my intelligence.” It is frequently observed that Hemingway, in his own life, sought to challenge himself intellectually through his friendships and writing, as well as physically through activities like boxing, war service, hunting, fishing, and bullfighting.

Although Hemingway is sometimes criticized for what some interpret as a fascination with violence for its own sake, it is easy to see why the Latin American ideal of machismo resonated with him.

Set in the 1940s, the story unfolds primarily in the Gulf Stream off the coast of Cuba, though it begins and ends in a quaint Cuban fishing village. For Hemingway, the sea represents one of the last unexplored frontiers on earth, embodying a realm teeming with mystery and depth. This narrative delves into the enigmatic nature of the ocean, portraying it not merely as a backdrop, but as a profound character in its own right.

In Hemingway's novella, Santiago's inner thoughts drive the narrative, offering a deep dive into his character much like a soliloquy or interior monologue might in a play. This introspective journey draws readers into Santiago's consciousness, painting a vivid picture of his determination and resilience during his epic struggle at sea.

Symbolism is a cornerstone of Hemingway's technique, particularly in portraying Santiago as a Christ-like figure. An instance of this symbolism is when Santiago mutters "Ay" after a harrowing ordeal with the sharks. Hemingway describes this exclamation as an untranslatable sound, likening it to the pain of Christ's crucifixion. Furthermore, Santiago's laborious trek up the hill with the mast on his shoulder mirrors the imagery of Christ bearing the cross, enriching the narrative with layers of religious symbolism. Alongside these motifs, Hemingway interweaves elements of baseball and youthful dreams, creating a tapestry of symbols that deepen the novella's thematic resonance.

While the plot of The Old Man and the Sea is straightforward, it is imbued with suspense and elevated by its exquisite imagery. The sea is rendered with poetic precision, and the character of Santiago emerges as a figure of great admiration. Hemingway's ability to evoke the sea not only crafts a beautiful backdrop but also serves to highlight Santiago's heroic qualities in the face of nature's vast and indifferent might.

The moon had been up for a long time but he slept on and the fish pulled on steadily and the boat moved into the tunnel of clouds.

The Old Man and the Sea delves deeply into humankind's connection with nature and our place within it. Santiago, a fisherman whose survival depends on catching fish, exhibits an intense love for nature and an exceptional awareness of his surroundings. His profound respect for nature is largely tied to his identity as a fisherman. Unlike outsiders who are merely tourists appreciating the "beauty of nature," Santiago's understanding of nature is deeply rooted in his experiences.

Another significant social theme is the importance of role models for the youth, highlighted through the Santiago-Manolin relationship. This bond underscores the value of mentors outside the family in a young man's growth. Their relationship also brings attention to the respect and care for the elderly and the isolation that can accompany aging. More crucially, Hemingway powerfully illustrates how the simplest and poorest individuals can embody the greatest human dignity and richness of character.

Additional Commentary

Few writers have captured the essence of nature, the depths of human character, and the duality of tragedy and triumph in human experience as Hemingway has. His work is rooted in timeless values: courage, precision, skill, honor, honesty, and dignity. Much of his writing carries a profound spiritual undertone, deeply religious yet never preachy. Hemingway confronts the truth of experience, regardless of its darkness or violence. He acknowledges the existence of evil, suffering, and death, while also focusing on the human endeavor to overcome adversity through values and behavior that lead to redemption.

Many readers may approach Hemingway with concerns about the violent and "macho" reputation of his work. The Old Man and the Sea does portray the inherent violence of nature and includes some passages that could be perceived as sexist. For instance, in an extended metaphor comparing the sea to a woman, Hemingway writes: "the old man always thought of [the sea] as feminine and as something that gave or withheld great favors, and if she did wild or wicked things it was because she could not help them. The moon affects her as it does a woman, he thought." However, Hemingway's overall vision and values remain positive and relevant to all humanity.

If one accepts the prevailing critical opinion, there are few literary works that precede The Old Man and the Sea. Moby-Dick (1851), another renowned sea-focused novel centered on the pursuit of a great creature, is occasionally mentioned as a precedent, but the similarities are largely superficial. Some have pointed out the biblical elements present in Hemingway’s narrative. Additionally, for its depiction of the sea and humanity's role within nature's grand design, Stephen Crane’s “The Open Boat” (1898) resonates with Hemingway’s work, and it is known that Hemingway admired Crane’s writing.

More relevant, however, might be works featuring characters of profound simplicity and dignity who engage with nature in a reverent manner. A particularly compelling example—and one Hemingway may have considered while writing The Old Man and the Sea—is William Faulkner’s Go Down, Moses (1942). Specifically, the sections of that novel involving Sam Fathers—a clear counterpart to Santiago—and hunting. Faulkner’s “The Old People” (1942) and “The Bear” (1942) portray a mentor-apprentice relationship between a wise, humble, yet proud old man (Sam Fathers) and a young boy (Ike McCaslin), a quest for a noble creature (the bear), and a rich, respectful depiction of nature.

In a broader sense, all of Hemingway’s works relate to The Old Man and the Sea since it serves as his final significant piece, encapsulating and refining the central themes present throughout his career. Specifically, Hemingway’s early work “Big Two-Hearted River: Part I & II,” written nearly thirty years prior to The Old Man and the Sea, delves into similar subject matter and themes. This story, which follows a young man fishing for trout alone in the north woods of Michigan, explores the important themes of humanity’s relationship with nature and the challenges of human suffering and endurance. However, “Big Two-Hearted River” should be considered the concluding chapter of the story-cycle In Our Time, which primarily focuses on the development of Nick Adams. Many other Hemingway stories and novels also tackle related themes: humanity’s connection to nature, fishing and hunting, and the dynamics between a young protagonist and an older, wiser character. Examples of these works include “Indian Camp,” “The Battler,” “My Old Man,” and “The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber.”

• The Old Man and the Sea was turned into a feature film in 1958, with Spencer Tracy playing Santiago and Felipe Pazos as the Boy. Produced by Warner Brothers, this movie has been lauded for its impressive visual effects, and its musical score received an Academy Award.
• In 1990, the story was adapted into a made-for-TV movie featuring Anthony Quinn, Gary Cole, Alexis Cruz, Patricia Clarkson, and Francesco Quinn.
• The novel is also available as a two-cassette audio recording, narrated by Charlton Heston.

Baker, Carlos. Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. This is one of the earliest and remains one of the finest critical analyses of Hemingway's works.

Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner’s, 1969. As the first comprehensive biography of Hemingway, this book continues to be the most reliable source for a balanced view of the man and his career.

Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. This is a helpful and accessible collection of Hemingway's interviews and statements.

The Hemingway Review. This journal publishes most of the significant new scholarly and critical work on Hemingway.

Moore, Gene M. “Ernest Hemingway.” In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Provides a valuable summary of Hemingway criticism and biography.

Reynolds, Michael. The Young Hemingway. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986. The initial volume in a multivolume biography of Hemingway, this discerning work is one of the most important and substantial biographies to emerge since Baker's seminal study.

Wagner, Linda W., ed. Ernest Hemingway: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987. Features some of the finest critical essays on Hemingway’s work. Notable pieces include William Faulkner's “Review of The Old Man and the Sea” and Linda W. Wagner's “The Poem of Santiago and Manolin.”

Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader’s Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. An informative guide to Hemingway’s literature.

Williams, Wirt. The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. This critical study includes a fascinating chapter on The Old Man and the Sea, analyzing it as both a tragedy and a “Christian fable.”

Sources

Baker, Carlos, ed. Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels. Scribner’s, 1962, pp. 132–72.

Beegel, Susan F. “Conclusion: The Critical Reputation of Ernest Hemingway.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 276.

Brenner, Gerry, and Earl Rovit. “The Structure of the Fiction.” In Ernest Hemingway, Revised Edition. Twayne, 1986, pp. 62–89.

Brenner, Gerry, ed. The Old Man and the Sea: The Story of a Common Man. Twayne, 1991.

Lynn, Kenneth. Hemingway. Simon and Schuster, 1987.

Young, Philip. Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1966, p. 274.

For Further Study

Burhans, Clifford. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In American Literature, January, 1960, p. 447. Burhans connects The Old Man and the Sea to Hemingway’s earlier works and sees it as a mature expression of the author’s philosophy.

Burhans, Clinton S., Jr. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 259–68. The critic portrays the novel as Hemingway’s “mature view of the tragic irony of man’s fate.”

Burwell, Rose Marie. Hemingway: The Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Burwell’s work has garnered significant acclaim for replacing the wound theory and notions of code heroes with new interpretations of Hemingway’s later works.

Griffith, John. “Rectitude in Hemingway’s Fiction: How Rite Makes Right.” In Hemingway in Our Time, edited by Richard Astro and Jackson T. Benson. Oregon State University Press, 1974, pp. 159–73. Griffith examines the author’s expressions of “ritual correctness and moral right.”

Kinnamon, Kenneth. “Hemingway and Politics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 149–69. Despite Hemingway’s noted individualism and disdain for politicians, Kinnamon argues for a consistent leftist thread in the author’s political philosophy.

Levin, Harry. “Observations on the Style of Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert P. Weeks. Prentice-Hall, 1962, pp. 72–85. Levin discusses Hemingway’s “power of connotation” and “subtle suggestion.”

Love, Glen. “Revaluing Nature: Towards an Ecological Criticism.” In Old West—New West: Centennial Essays, edited by Barbara H. Meldrum. University of Idaho Press, 1993. Love criticizes scholars for neglecting environmental issues and suggests that works like Hemingway’s profoundly address these topics.

Morgan, Kathleen, and Luis Losada. “Santiago and The Old Man and the Sea: A Homeric Hero.” In The Hemingway Review, Vol. 12, No. 1, Fall, 1992, pp. 35–51. The critics explore Homeric influences in the novel.

Morrison, Toni. “Disturbing Nurses and the Kindness of Sharks.” In Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992, pp. 63ff. Morrison’s multicultural interpretations of Hemingway, though not specifically referring to The Old Man and the Sea, suggest that multiculturalism can provide new insights into Hemingway’s work.

Plimpton, George. “An Interview with Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 19–37. This piece delves into Hemingway's writing processes and the methods he used in his novels.

Spilka, Mark. Hemingway’s Quarrel with Androgyny. University of Nebraska Press, 1990, p. 189. Spilka observes that despite his public image, Hemingway was heavily reliant on women and secretly felt a kinship with them throughout his life.

Sylvester, Bickford. “The Cuban Context of The Old Man and the Sea.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 243–68. This intriguing essay explores how Hemingway's deep understanding of local traditions, history, religion, and baseball enriches the narrative of his novel.

Waldmeir, Joseph. “Confiteor Hominem: Ernest Hemingway’s Religion of Man.” In Ernest Hemingway: Five Decades of Criticism, edited by Linda Welshimer Wagner. Michigan State University Press, 1974, pp. 144–52. The critic analyzes the Christian symbolism present in the novel.

Williams, Wirt. “The Old Man and the Sea: The Culmination.” In The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Louisiana State University Press, 1981, pp. 172–97. Williams examines the novel's "tragic action" as a battle of will.