Historical Context
Cuba and the United States in the Early 1950s
Throughout most of the 1950s, the relationship between Cuba and the United States remained generally amicable, continuing a trend that had been in place since 1934. This year marked the repeal of the Platt Amendment, which had previously granted the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs. However, the U.S. ownership of numerous Cuban sugar mills persisted as a contentious issue. In 1952, President Prio Socarras was ousted in a military coup led by General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. Batista had earlier ruled as a dictator from 1933 to 1940 and would govern again until 1959, when Fidel Castro overthrew him. Despite moving to Ketchum, Idaho, shortly after Castro and his followers toppled Batista's regime, Hemingway had supported both the overthrow and what he termed the “historical necessity” of Castro's revolution.
Cuban Culture
In the first half of the twentieth century, Cuban culture was significantly characterized by an ambivalent attitude toward the Catholic Church. Unlike many other Latin American countries, the church and state in Cuba were constitutionally separate during this period. Nevertheless, due to its long Spanish heritage, Cuba remained heavily influenced by Catholic cultural norms. This resulted in a paradox where eighty-five percent of the population identified as Catholic, but only ten percent actively practiced the faith. This cultural context is reflected in The Old Man and the Sea. For instance, when Santiago struggles with the marlin, he says, “I am not religious, but I will say ten Our Fathers and ten Hail Marys that I should catch this fish, and I promise to make a pilgrimage to the Virgin of Cobre if I catch him.” Later, after killing the fish, Santiago questions if it is a sin to hope he can return to shore with the fish's meat intact, but he quickly dismisses the thought. “Do not think about sin,” he thought. “There are enough problems now without sin. Also, I have no understanding of it.”
Like other Latin Americans, Cubans place significant importance on the intrinsic worth of the individual. Under the code of personalismo, success in life is defined by the achievement of one's spiritual potential or personal destiny, rather than financial or career accomplishments. Consequently, Santiago is revered as a skilled and unique individual, even though he hasn't caught a fish in three months. Through the perspectives of Manolin and the omniscient narrator, Santiago is portrayed as a heroic and majestic figure who, like Odysseus or Christ, has endured a great ordeal and serves as a model to emulate.
Machismo, or the concept of manliness, holds significant importance as a male aspiration in traditional Latin American culture. This ideal of machismo is nurtured through various avenues such as military service, athletic achievements, intellectual pursuits, and sexual prowess. While most men are not expected to fully embody the machismo ideal, striving towards these qualities brings them closer to it. For instance, Santiago is admired for his remarkable physical endurance. He takes immense pride in having defeated a formidable Black man in an all-day hand-wrestling contest in Casablanca during his youth.
Santiago also highly values mental attributes, including his self-confidence and extensive knowledge of fishing techniques. His confidence in these abilities is so strong that he can wager “everything [the fish] has against only my will and my intelligence.” It is frequently observed that Hemingway, in his own life, sought to challenge himself intellectually through his friendships and writing, as well as physically through activities like boxing, war service, hunting, fishing, and bullfighting.
Although Hemingway is sometimes criticized for what some interpret as a fascination with violence for its own sake, it is easy to see why the Latin American ideal of machismo resonated with him.
Expert Q&A
Why is the old man in The Old Man and the Sea considered unlucky, and what does this reveal about his culture?
The old man, Santiago, is considered unlucky because he hasn't caught a fish in 84 days, leading others to believe his age has diminished his skills. This reflects a culture where success is tied to tangible results, and superstition is prevalent among fishermen. Like baseball players, they are influenced by streaks and rituals. Santiago's determination to break his streak by venturing far out to sea highlights his refusal to compromise, contrasting with others who fish merely for survival.
Setting
Set in the 1940s, the story unfolds primarily in the Gulf Stream off the coast of Cuba, though it begins and ends in a quaint Cuban fishing village. For Hemingway, the sea represents one of the last unexplored frontiers on earth, embodying a realm teeming with mystery and depth. This narrative delves into the enigmatic nature of the ocean, portraying it not merely as a backdrop, but as a profound character in its own right.
Expert Q&A
Is the time of year or month mentioned in The Old Man and the Sea?
The time of year in "The Old Man and the Sea" is explicitly mentioned as September. This setting is significant because it is when the large fish are most challenging to catch, emphasizing Santiago's struggle and endurance. September's cooler temperatures and shorter days add to the difficulty of his ordeal, contrasting with the warm, comforting imagery of Santiago's past dreams of Africa. The choice of September highlights the harsh realities Santiago faces compared to his youthful memories.
How does the author of The Old Man and the Sea create the setting using descriptive language and literary devices?
The setting and beginning of The Old Man and the Sea
The setting of The Old Man and the Sea is a small fishing village near Havana, Cuba, and the Gulf Stream in the Caribbean Sea. The story begins with Santiago, an old fisherman, who has gone 84 days without catching a fish. Despite his bad luck, he remains determined and ventures far into the sea in hopes of making a big catch.
The influence of the setting on the plot and creation of specific situations in "The Old Man and the Sea."
The setting of "The Old Man and the Sea" significantly influences the plot and specific situations. The vast, isolated sea emphasizes Santiago's loneliness and struggle, while the relentless ocean conditions create a backdrop for his epic battle with the marlin. The setting drives the narrative, highlighting themes of endurance, resilience, and man's connection to nature.
Style and Technique
In Hemingway's novella, Santiago's inner thoughts drive the narrative, offering a deep dive into his character much like a soliloquy or interior monologue might in a play. This introspective journey draws readers into Santiago's consciousness, painting a vivid picture of his determination and resilience during his epic struggle at sea.
Symbolism is a cornerstone of Hemingway's technique, particularly in portraying Santiago as a Christ-like figure. An instance of this symbolism is when Santiago mutters "Ay" after a harrowing ordeal with the sharks. Hemingway describes this exclamation as an untranslatable sound, likening it to the pain of Christ's crucifixion. Furthermore, Santiago's laborious trek up the hill with the mast on his shoulder mirrors the imagery of Christ bearing the cross, enriching the narrative with layers of religious symbolism. Alongside these motifs, Hemingway interweaves elements of baseball and youthful dreams, creating a tapestry of symbols that deepen the novella's thematic resonance.
While the plot of The Old Man and the Sea is straightforward, it is imbued with suspense and elevated by its exquisite imagery. The sea is rendered with poetic precision, and the character of Santiago emerges as a figure of great admiration. Hemingway's ability to evoke the sea not only crafts a beautiful backdrop but also serves to highlight Santiago's heroic qualities in the face of nature's vast and indifferent might.
The moon had been up for a long time but he slept on and the fish pulled on steadily and the boat moved into the tunnel of clouds.
Expert Q&A
Did the author's syntax affect the prose flow in The Old Man and the Sea?
Yes, the author's syntax significantly affects the prose flow. Hemingway uses simple, staccato-like sentences that create a distinct rhythm and mood, reflecting the old man's life and struggles. His syntax combines with word choice to form a unique flow, as seen in sentences that list negatives in parallel phrasing. This simplicity and repetition require readers to engage deeply, revealing the story's hidden layers and enhancing the narrative's impact.
In The Old Man and the Sea, why is the dialogue between Manolin and Santiago styled as such?
The dialogue between Manolin and Santiago is styled to reflect simplicity and efficiency, capturing the Cuban setting and period. Hemingway uses English, Spanish, and Cuban idioms, along with baseball references, to ground the story realistically. The informal dialogue underscores their comfort with each other, revealing emotions through actions rather than words. Referring to them as "the old man" and "the boy" adds universality, highlighting themes of youth versus old age and their shared human experiences.
Hemingway's Writing Style in The Old Man and the Sea
Ernest Hemingway's writing style in The Old Man and the Sea is characterized by its simplicity, directness, and the use of an omniscient narrator. The novel is organized into three sections, detailing the fishing trip's preparation, the struggle with the fish, and the journey home. Hemingway's style is terse and journalistic, employing short sentences, monosyllabic words, and internal monologues to convey Santiago's emotions and struggles. This straightforward style enhances the story's allegorical elements and the powerful depiction of the man's conflict with nature.
Literary Precedents
If one accepts the prevailing critical opinion, there are few literary works that precede The Old Man and the Sea. Moby-Dick (1851), another renowned sea-focused novel centered on the pursuit of a great creature, is occasionally mentioned as a precedent, but the similarities are largely superficial. Some have pointed out the biblical elements present in Hemingway’s narrative. Additionally, for its depiction of the sea and humanity's role within nature's grand design, Stephen Crane’s “The Open Boat” (1898) resonates with Hemingway’s work, and it is known that Hemingway admired Crane’s writing.
More relevant, however, might be works featuring characters of profound simplicity and dignity who engage with nature in a reverent manner. A particularly compelling example—and one Hemingway may have considered while writing The Old Man and the Sea—is William Faulkner’s Go Down, Moses (1942). Specifically, the sections of that novel involving Sam Fathers—a clear counterpart to Santiago—and hunting. Faulkner’s “The Old People” (1942) and “The Bear” (1942) portray a mentor-apprentice relationship between a wise, humble, yet proud old man (Sam Fathers) and a young boy (Ike McCaslin), a quest for a noble creature (the bear), and a rich, respectful depiction of nature.
Media Adaptations
- The Old Man and the Sea was turned into a feature film in 1958, with Spencer Tracy playing Santiago and Felipe Pazos as the Boy. Produced by Warner Brothers, this movie has been lauded for its impressive visual effects, and its musical score received an Academy Award.
- In 1990, the story was adapted into a made-for-TV movie featuring Anthony Quinn, Gary Cole, Alexis Cruz, Patricia Clarkson, and Francesco Quinn.
- The novel is also available as a two-cassette audio recording, narrated by Charlton Heston.
For Further Reference
Baker, Carlos. Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. This is one of the earliest and remains one of the finest critical analyses of Hemingway's works.
Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Scribner’s, 1969. As the first comprehensive biography of Hemingway, this book continues to be the most reliable source for a balanced view of the man and his career.
Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. This is a helpful and accessible collection of Hemingway's interviews and statements.
The Hemingway Review. This journal publishes most of the significant new scholarly and critical work on Hemingway.
Moore, Gene M. “Ernest Hemingway.” In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Provides a valuable summary of Hemingway criticism and biography.
Reynolds, Michael. The Young Hemingway. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986. The initial volume in a multivolume biography of Hemingway, this discerning work is one of the most important and substantial biographies to emerge since Baker's seminal study.
Wagner, Linda W., ed. Ernest Hemingway: Six Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987. Features some of the finest critical essays on Hemingway’s work. Notable pieces include William Faulkner's “Review of The Old Man and the Sea” and Linda W. Wagner's “The Poem of Santiago and Manolin.”
Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader’s Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972. An informative guide to Hemingway’s literature.
Williams, Wirt. The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981. This critical study includes a fascinating chapter on The Old Man and the Sea, analyzing it as both a tragedy and a “Christian fable.”
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Baker, Carlos, ed. Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels. Scribner’s, 1962, pp. 132–72.
Beegel, Susan F. “Conclusion: The Critical Reputation of Ernest Hemingway.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 276.
Brenner, Gerry, and Earl Rovit. “The Structure of the Fiction.” In Ernest Hemingway, Revised Edition. Twayne, 1986, pp. 62–89.
Brenner, Gerry, ed. The Old Man and the Sea: The Story of a Common Man. Twayne, 1991.
Lynn, Kenneth. Hemingway. Simon and Schuster, 1987.
Young, Philip. Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1966, p. 274.
For Further Study
Burhans, Clifford. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In American Literature, January, 1960, p. 447. Burhans connects The Old Man and the Sea to Hemingway’s earlier works and sees it as a mature expression of the author’s philosophy.
Burhans, Clinton S., Jr. “The Old Man and the Sea: Hemingway’s Tragic Vision of Man.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 259–68. The critic portrays the novel as Hemingway’s “mature view of the tragic irony of man’s fate.”
Burwell, Rose Marie. Hemingway: The Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Burwell’s work has garnered significant acclaim for replacing the wound theory and notions of code heroes with new interpretations of Hemingway’s later works.
Griffith, John. “Rectitude in Hemingway’s Fiction: How Rite Makes Right.” In Hemingway in Our Time, edited by Richard Astro and Jackson T. Benson. Oregon State University Press, 1974, pp. 159–73. Griffith examines the author’s expressions of “ritual correctness and moral right.”
Kinnamon, Kenneth. “Hemingway and Politics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 149–69. Despite Hemingway’s noted individualism and disdain for politicians, Kinnamon argues for a consistent leftist thread in the author’s political philosophy.
Levin, Harry. “Observations on the Style of Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Robert P. Weeks. Prentice-Hall, 1962, pp. 72–85. Levin discusses Hemingway’s “power of connotation” and “subtle suggestion.”
Love, Glen. “Revaluing Nature: Towards an Ecological Criticism.” In Old West—New West: Centennial Essays, edited by Barbara H. Meldrum. University of Idaho Press, 1993. Love criticizes scholars for neglecting environmental issues and suggests that works like Hemingway’s profoundly address these topics.
Morgan, Kathleen, and Luis Losada. “Santiago and The Old Man and the Sea: A Homeric Hero.” In The Hemingway Review, Vol. 12, No. 1, Fall, 1992, pp. 35–51. The critics explore Homeric influences in the novel.
Morrison, Toni. “Disturbing Nurses and the Kindness of Sharks.” In Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Harvard University Press, 1992, pp. 63ff. Morrison’s multicultural interpretations of Hemingway, though not specifically referring to The Old Man and the Sea, suggest that multiculturalism can provide new insights into Hemingway’s work.
Plimpton, George. “An Interview with Ernest Hemingway.” In Hemingway and His Critics: An International Anthology, edited by Carlos Baker. Hill and Wang, 1961, pp. 19–37. This piece delves into Hemingway's writing processes and the methods he used in his novels.
Spilka, Mark. Hemingway’s Quarrel with Androgyny. University of Nebraska Press, 1990, p. 189. Spilka observes that despite his public image, Hemingway was heavily reliant on women and secretly felt a kinship with them throughout his life.
Sylvester, Bickford. “The Cuban Context of The Old Man and the Sea.” In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, edited by Scott Donaldson. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 243–68. This intriguing essay explores how Hemingway's deep understanding of local traditions, history, religion, and baseball enriches the narrative of his novel.
Waldmeir, Joseph. “Confiteor Hominem: Ernest Hemingway’s Religion of Man.” In Ernest Hemingway: Five Decades of Criticism, edited by Linda Welshimer Wagner. Michigan State University Press, 1974, pp. 144–52. The critic analyzes the Christian symbolism present in the novel.
Williams, Wirt. “The Old Man and the Sea: The Culmination.” In The Tragic Art of Ernest Hemingway. Louisiana State University Press, 1981, pp. 172–97. Williams examines the novel's "tragic action" as a battle of will.
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