As one of the earliest works in its genre to have survived, the Odyssey not only showcases the mechanics of epic poetry but also helps define them. For at least 500 years after its creation, the epic form as presented in the Odyssey underwent only minor modifications.

General Technique

Overall, the Odyssey is more technically sophisticated than the Iliad. For instance, the flashbacks that appeared awkward in the earlier poem are handled with much more finesse. The narrative transitions smoothly from one scene to another, even within the same book, making the action more dynamic compared to the formalized battle scenes in the Iliad.

Meter

In English meter, patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables are used. Greek meter, however, employs patterns of long and short syllables, generally with two short syllables equating to one long syllable. Greek poetry does not rhyme but frequently uses alliteration and assonance (repeated use of similar consonant and vowel patterns, respectively).

The Odyssey is composed in dactylic hexameters, the "standard" form for epic poetry. This specific meter is sometimes referred to as "epic meter" or "epic hexameter." Hexameter indicates that each line has six elements, or "feet," while dactylic describes the metrical pattern of each foot: typically, one long syllable followed by two short syllables, though variations are permitted. For example, the final foot in each line is often a spondee (two long syllables instead of one long and two short). The meter can be adjusted to match the action described, using more dactyls for fast-paced scenes (like horses galloping) and more spondees for slower or somber moments.

Similes

Similes, which were a hallmark of the Iliad, are used more sparingly in the Odyssey, making them more impactful when they do appear. This often highlights the significance of a particular passage. For example, at the beginning of Book 20, two similes describe Odysseus plotting the downfall of the scheming maids and the suitors within 15 lines:

The heart inside him growled low with rage, as a bitch mounting over her weak, defenseless puppies growls, facing a stranger, bristling for a showdown—so he growled from his depths, hackles rising at their outrage. (XX.13-16, Fagles)
. . . But he himself kept tossing, turning, intent as a cook before some white-hot blazing fire who rolls his sizzling sausage back and forth, packed with fat and blood—keen to broil it quickly, tossing, turning it, this way, that way—so he cast about. . . . (XX.24-26, Fagles)

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing, the technique of "hinting" at future plot events either overtly (through prophecies, etc.) or subtly, is quite prevalent in the Odyssey. This is often seen through the frequent "wishes" or prayers that the gods will punish the suitors for their arrogance (which they eventually do). It is especially prominent in Book 11, where Odysseus describes his journey to the underworld to seek the counsel of Tiresias's shade.

Another instance is the eventual downfall of the suitors in Books 21 and 22. Their fate is explicitly predicted by at least one prophet (Theoclymenus, at XX.350-57). It is also suggested by various omens and signs. For instance, the suitors meet their end on a feast day of Apollo, who is, among other things, the god of archery. Additionally, when Odysseus finally strings his bow, it emits a "sound like the voice of a swallow" (XXI.411), a bird known to Homer’s audience for migrating and returning to its previous nest.

Symbolism

Homer extensively employs symbolism throughout the Odyssey. For example, the olive trees under which Odysseus falls asleep in Book 5, and where he and Athena devise their plan in Book 13, symbolize Athena, the goddess of wisdom, craft, weaving (hence the phrase at XIII.386, "weave a scheme"), and war. Many names in Books 6-12 are also symbolic: "Alcinous" means "sharp-witted" or "brave-witted," while his queen, Arete, has a name meaning "virtue." The names of the Phaeacians are almost universally connected to the sea or sailing, and the nymph Calypso’s name is closely linked to the Greek verb meaning "to hide" or "conceal." There is speculation that the name "Odysseus" may be related to a Greek verb meaning "to cause pain" or, in the middle or passive voice, "to suffer pain."

There are also two brilliant symbolic wordplays in the original Greek that are difficult to translate into English. The first occurs in Book 9 when Odysseus and his men blind Polyphemus. Odysseus has told the Cyclops that his name is "Nobody," Outis in Greek, from the words for "no" and "someone." When Polyphemus’s neighbors respond to his cries, the Greek negative changes from ou to me, making ou tis become me tis. Though it still means "no one," it sounds exactly like the Greek word for "scheme" or "plot," part of the epithet polumetis, "of many schemes," often used for Odysseus.

The second wordplay occurs each time Penelope mentions Troy (XIX.260, 597, and XXIII.19). Since she says the city's name is "unmentionable," whenever she has to refer to it, she combines its alternative name, "Ilion," with the word for "evil," creating in Greek the word Kakoilion, "Eviltroy" or, as Fagles translates it, "Destroy."

The epic poem stands as the oldest form of literature, and Homer is recognized as the father of the Western epic. He established many of the epic conventions that later epic writers would follow. Throughout history, numerous poets have emulated Homer, with the Roman poet Virgil being particularly notable. Virgil's Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas, one of the few survivors of Troy, who goes on to found Rome. Virgil’s work is considered a Secondary Epic because it is a direct, written imitation of Homer’s oral tradition. In contrast, the Iliad and the Odyssey, being products of oral tradition and not imitations of an existing genre, are classified as Primary Epics. Virgil’s brilliance lies not only in his imitation of Homer but also in his adaptation of the epic genre to address his contemporary context.

Virgil’s influence on literature is profound, particularly evident in Dante’s medieval epic, the Commedia, where Virgil serves as the protagonist’s guide through the underworld. During the Renaissance and the rise of Neoclassicism, works such as Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata and Milton’s Paradise Lost were heavily inspired by Homer. This influence extends to countless lesser-known epics written over the centuries in Greece, Rome, and Medieval and Renaissance Europe, all based on Homeric style.

Homer established numerous conventions that evolved over the centuries. Below is a list of these epic conventions, illustrating their appearance in Homer’s works and their development through centuries of Homeric imitation:

(1) Epic Hero—The main character in an epic poem represents his nation, culture, or race. He is typically a figure of noble appearance, significant military skill, and unwavering virtue.

(2) Lengthy Narrative—An epic poem is a substantial work, often spanning several books, cantos, or chapters.

(3) Lofty Tone and Style—The poem should maintain a serious and grave tone. While lighter moments may be present, they are secondary to the overall solemn mood. The writing style should be grand and elevated, setting it apart from lesser works.

(4) Epic Similes—An epic simile is an extended comparison between a poem’s element or character and an external entity. These similes are highly visual and either offer a new perspective on the subject or reveal intricate details that would be too complex to explain directly.

(5) Catalogs/Genealogies—Epic poems often include extensive lists and catalogs of characters, equipment, or other important plot elements. They also provide detailed genealogies for significant characters or artifacts, lending an air of antiquity and authority to the narrative.

(6) Supernatural Involvement—An epic invariably includes some form of divine intervention in the central action of the poem. These supernatural entities either aid or oppose the epic hero, but their influence is always somewhat restricted (i.e., they cannot control the entire narrative).

(7) Invocation—Epic poems typically begin with an invocation to a higher power, seeking guidance for the poet's grand task. The poet often calls upon the Muses, especially Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry. Sometimes, the poet may invoke a specific deity or powerful entity for inspiration. Regardless of who is invoked, this serves as an introduction to the forthcoming action.

(8) In Medias Res—Many epics start in medias res, or “in the middle of things.” This means the story begins after many significant events have already occurred. A character will later recount these earlier events, allowing the reader to understand the poem's background.

(9) Voyage Across the Sea—Epic heroes and other characters frequently embark on sea voyages to discover new lands or explore distant regions. These journeys expand the narrative's setting, enhancing the epic's overall significance.

(10) Trip to the Underworld—A journey to the underworld is a recurring theme in epic poetry. The hero often gains valuable knowledge from the spirits he encounters. This perilous journey to and from the netherworld adds to the epic's dramatic tension.

(11) Epic Battles—Epic poems commonly feature vivid descriptions of grand battles, whether one-on-one duels between legendary champions or massive clashes between powerful armies. These battles may seem to glorify war but also symbolize the struggles of the nation, culture, or race represented by the epic hero.

The "Odyssey" is a sprawling epic filled with diverse settings, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Odysseus’s journey. From the chaos of his homeland, Ithaca, to the mystical allure of places like Ogygia and Aiaia, the poem details Odysseus's encounters with both civilization and barbarism. Each location serves as more than just a backdrop; it plays a critical role in shaping the narrative and themes of the poem.

Ithaca

Odysseus's beloved home, Ithaca, is a mountainous island located west of mainland Greece. It is central to the "Odyssey," appearing prominently in the first two and last twelve books of the poem. The island is marked by two significant locations: the palace of Odysseus and the humble hut of the swineherd Eumaeus. Upon Odysseus’s long-awaited return after a twenty-year absence, he finds his palace overrun by 108 suitors vying for his wife Penelope’s hand, turning it into a haven of chaos. In stark contrast, Eumaeus’s hut remains a bastion of hospitality and respect, embodying the virtues the suitors lack.

Troy

The city of Troy, situated on the west coast of Asia Minor, serves as the site of the infamous Trojan War. This decade-long siege is pivotal, as it is the event that leads to Odysseus’s prolonged absence from Ithaca. Although Troy is the primary focus of "The Iliad," it serves as a significant prelude to the "Odyssey," laying the groundwork for Odysseus’s arduous journey home.

Pylos and Sparta

During the "Telemachia," Odysseus's son, Telemachus, visits the kingdoms of Pylos and Sparta. These visits serve as a microcosm of Odysseus’s journey, providing a contrast to the disorder of Ithaca. Pylos is ruled by wise Nestor, while Sparta is under the reign of Menelaus, Helen's husband. Telemachus’s interactions with these figures symbolize his transition from adolescence to maturity, while also offering narrative exposition on the Trojan War and Odysseus’s travels.

Argos

Argos, the Greek home of Agamemnon, provides a tragic counterpoint to Odysseus's story. Agamemnon's murder upon his return from Troy by Aigisthos and his wife Clytemnestra offers a stark contrast to Odysseus's own, eventually joyful, homecoming. The narrative of Argos also introduces a parallel between Orestes, who avenges his father’s death, and Telemachus, who aids in the retribution against his mother's suitors.

Skheria

Skheria, land of the Phaeacians, is where Odysseus finds respite after leaving Ogygia. Known for their hospitality, the Phaeacians listen to Odysseus’s recounting of his journey before helping him return to Ithaca. Their civilized customs are highlighted in contrast to the barbarism encountered elsewhere in his travels.

Cave of the Cyclops

The cave of Polyphemos, a Cyclops, embodies the savage world that Odysseus must navigate. As giants who eschew agriculture and live in caves, the Cyclopes depict a life lacking societal order. When Odysseus and his men are trapped by Polyphemos, they must rely on cunning to escape. This encounter leads to Poseidon’s wrath, prolonging Odysseus’s journey.

Aiaia

The island of Aiaia, home to Circe, tempts Odysseus with its seductive beauty. Circe’s habit of transforming visitors into animals symbolizes a perversion of hospitality. Although Odysseus resists literal transformation, he nearly succumbs to the ease and pleasure offered, until he chooses the hardship of his return home.

Nekuia

Nekuia, the underworld, is a mysterious realm where Odysseus seeks guidance from the prophet Tiresias. This journey allows him to converse with shades of the past, providing him with crucial information for his return.

Island of the Sirens

The island of the Sirens presents another peril, with Odysseus narrowly avoiding disaster by having his crew plug their ears while he listens, tied to the ship's mast. Their enchanting songs lure sailors to doom, embodying the dangers of temptation.

Scylla and Charybdis

The treacherous strait guarded by Scylla and Charybdis forces Odysseus into a harrowing decision, where he must navigate between a six-headed monster and a deadly whirlpool. This scene has come to symbolize the perilous choices one must make when facing equally dire consequences.

Thrinakia

On Thrinakia, the island of Helios's cattle, Odysseus's men defy divine warnings and slaughter sacred cattle. Their transgression incurs Zeus’s wrath, resulting in their demise and leaving Odysseus as the sole survivor.

Ogygia

Ogygia, the idyllic island of Calypso, presents Odysseus with his greatest temptation to abandon his quest for home. Calypso’s offer of immortality and pleasure tests Odysseus’s resolve, but his determination to return to Ithaca ultimately prevails.

Olympus

Mount Olympus, the realm of the gods, is where divine assemblies determine Odysseus’s fate. The mountain serves as a representation of idealized order and civilization, contrasting with the tumultuous world Odysseus must traverse.