The origins of the Homeric poems are shrouded in mystery, primarily because their creation spanned several centuries. In a very real sense, the historical and cultural context of these poems is akin to an archaeological site: it is deep, layered, and over time, elements can become displaced from their original contexts. For instance, the cremation burial of Elpenor described in XII.11-15 would have been a common practice in Homer's era but was exceedingly rare during the Bronze Age, when the events he narrates are set.

The Bronze Age

The Trojan War and its aftermath occurred in the late Bronze Age, which began around 1550 BC. This period is marked by the wealthy burials discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in Grave Circle A at Mycenae in 1873, and thus, it is often referred to as the Mycenaean era. This was a time of relative stability, although conflicts, wars, and raids were not uncommon. The dominant powers in the eastern Mediterranean were the Hittites in central Turkey, the Egyptians in the Middle East, and seemingly, the Mycenaean kings in Greece and the surrounding islands.

These three "great kings" ruled over literate societies, at least to the extent of maintaining records and official documents, even if they did not produce "literature" as we understand it. Their societies were complex, complete with bureaucrats, as evidenced by the Linear B tablets found at Pylos and other locations. These rulers engaged in diplomacy with each other and with numerous smaller kingdoms on the fringes of their territory, which acted as buffer zones. These smaller kingdoms were often compelled to provide military and economic support under the terms of treaties binding them to a particular great kingdom. They were also prime targets for raids by other "great kings" and foreign invaders, especially those distant from their protectors' centers of power and military strongholds.

Trade flourished during this period. Despite the uncertainties of shipping and other transportation methods, and a relatively low level of technological advancement by modern standards, trade was surprisingly robust. Distinctive Mycenaean pottery, whether as art pieces for display and ceremonial use or for transporting goods like oil, grain, or perfume, is found in staggering quantities throughout the Mediterranean basin during this era.

The Trojan War, if it indeed occurred, came near the end of this thriving civilization. The Greeks, using generational calculations, date the war to around 1184 BC, while modern scholarship, based on archaeological evidence at Troy and other sites, places it approximately 75 years earlier, around 1250 BC. However, the traditional victors of Troy did not have long to savor their triumph.

The Dark Age

For reasons we do not fully comprehend, this civilization starts to decline around 1220 BC with the mysterious destruction and subsequent abandonment of Pylos. This event triggers a period of decline lasting until approximately 1050 BC, when the Mycenaean civilization essentially vanishes. Some traces of this tumultuous time seem to be captured in the Odyssey, where, for instance, the first question posed to a stranger is often "Are you a pirate?" The social upheaval, population migrations, and foreign invasions that marked the end of the Mycenaean civilization may have also inspired the troubled homecomings of some Homeric heroes depicted in the poem.

Regardless of its causes, the fall of the Mycenaean civilization signaled the onset of about 250 years of hardship in Greece, aptly known as the Dark Age. This period concludes with the traditional date of the first Olympiad in 776 BC, around the same time Homer is believed to have lived. We know very little about this Dark Age, relying mainly on deductions from the subsequent period and limited archaeological evidence.

During this time, writing was lost, and with it, most trade diminished, surviving only on a local or regional scale at best. Archaeologists studying this era report finding very few "luxury" items like ornate pottery—if they find anything at all. Biers (1980) suggests there may have been up to a 75% decrease in population from Bronze Age levels.

The Iron Age

Starting around the 11th century BC, the Greeks began using iron instead of bronze, cremating their dead rather than burying them intact, and establishing colonies along the west coast of what is now Turkey. By the time of Homer, around the middle of the eighth century BC, these trends were well-established, and conditions were beginning to improve.

Writing was being rediscovered with a new alphabet borrowed from the Phoenicians, and foreign trade was on the rise, aided significantly by the colonies along the Ionian coast. These colonies, while generally independent of their mother cities, tended to maintain friendly relations with them. The population was increasing again, prompting another wave of colonization, primarily towards the west (Sicily, parts of Italy, and southern France).

On the Greek mainland, the era of kings was rapidly ending. By the start of the eighth century, nobles had seized power from the kings almost everywhere, ruling over family groups or tribes in what would later be known as the polis, or city-state.

Primarily due to the intricate designs on pottery from this time, the era is referred to as the Geometric period. However, this increasing regularity extended beyond just decorative arts. During this period, the emergence of a Greek national identity became prominent, evidenced by the establishment of the Olympic games and the distribution of Homer's works, among other developments. There is also proof that more organized military strategies were beginning to be implemented.

Religious practices, though not necessarily beliefs, also appear to have started a process of standardization at this point. While Homeric heroes occasionally visit specific sites for religious rites (such as the "shady groves" dedicated to Apollo mentioned in Book 20), most rituals seem to be family- or group-oriented, occurring wherever the family or group happens to be at the time. Archaeological findings from the Bronze Age support this perspective. Formal altars, like the one at the fountain described in Book 17, are known from the Bronze Age. However, temples—buildings specifically designated for formal public worship—are not commonly found in the archaeological record before the ninth century BC and become much more prevalent thereafter.

Following Homer's era, as Greece experienced growth in population, wealth, commerce, and industry, the political landscape fluctuated between more aristocratic and democratic models and various forms of autocratic rule. This continued until just before the onset of the Golden Age in the fifth century BC.

Anyone studying Homer’s poetry cannot overlook the pivotal event in both the Iliad and the Odyssey: the Trojan War. Odysseus' adventures occur following his involvement in the Greek campaign at Troy. The domestic issues he encounters upon his return stem from his prolonged absence during the war and his subsequent wanderings. The vast literature dedicated to this unique event underscores its importance to Homer’s contemporaries and subsequent generations.

Homer’s poetry portrays an era that is explicitly not his own, but a heroic age of the distant past. The archaeological discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century A.D. has provided significant insights into this event. Schliemann uncovered nine city layers at a site that closely aligned with Homer’s description of the plains of Ilium. The seventh layer, a city destroyed by fire, thrived in the twelfth century B.C., roughly four hundred years before Homer’s time. Modern scholars identify this city as the Troy depicted in Homer’s works.

According to the Iliad, the Trojan War endured for a full decade before culminating in Troy’s destruction. Although it is improbable that such a siege lasted ten years (some scholars suggest it was as brief as ten days!), the event remained significant to future generations. Some critics argue that the portrayal of a unified Greece gave the poems a universal appeal. It is important to note that for most of ancient and classical Greek history, the city-state or polis was the primary unit of government, not a unified nation. Cities like Sparta, Athens, and Thebes operated under distinct systems of governance, although trade and culture were shared among the city-states. Conflicts between city-states were frequent, as was a tendency towards isolationism when external threats loomed over the Greek peninsula.

What stands out in Homer’s poems is not only the depiction of a collective effort by Greek cities but also the impartiality shown towards them. Some scholars believe this is because Homer resided across the Aegean Sea in Asia Minor, allowing him to write without bias towards any particular city.

Homer’s geographical distance from the Greek mainland may also explain why the Trojans, who were his neighbors in Asia Minor, are not portrayed as uncivilized barbarians but as noble figures, equal to their Greek adversaries. Indeed, many modern readers find themselves more drawn to Hector, the prince of Troy, than to the often self-absorbed and arrogant Achilles.

• Late Bronze Age (the era of the Odyssey): Governance is dominated by a few "great kings" (such as those of Egypt, the Hittite Empire, and Mycenae) who oversee vast territories, either directly or through alliances in loose confederations. Some of these alliances are formalized in treaties. Raiding and looting are fairly common, particularly in border regions far from central authority.

  Iron Age: While monarchies still exist, many areas have transitioned to aristocratic or oligarchic societies based on family or clan structures. The development of the polis, or city-state, is well underway. Inter-"national" cooperation is beginning to re-emerge following the isolation of the Dark Age.

  Late twentieth century: Various forms of government are in practice, with different types of democracies being more prevalent than monarchies. However, a relatively small number of "superpower" or highly influential nations still exist. High levels of cooperation are evident (e.g., the United Nations), though occasional conflicts persist.

• Late Bronze Age: Writing exists but is mostly in cumbersome, syllabic forms like Egyptian hieroglyphics, Mycenaean Linear A and B scripts, or Hittite/Akkadian cuneiform. Literacy is likely limited to the elite aristocracy and a professional class of scribes, bureaucrats, and diplomats.

  Iron Age: In the Greek-speaking world, literacy is beginning to resurface with a new alphabet where each letter represents a distinct sound instead of a whole syllable. Literacy is probably still confined to the upper classes and some professionals, such as rhapsodes and certain artists.

  Late twentieth century: The majority of people are literate, at least to the extent that they can manage their own business affairs.

• Late Bronze Age: Religious practices occur mainly in family or group settings. There may be designated spaces for cultic figures or idols, but formal, public worship sites are rare and hard to identify, if they existed at all.

  Iron Age: Family religious observances continue, especially in honoring ancestral graves. However, formal cultic centers are beginning to be established and are playing a more significant role as religious practices become more defined.

  Late twentieth century: Religious practices vary widely between countries and religions. Most major world religions have specific places designated for formal public worship, which are clearly identified and not used for other purposes. Many believers also have religious objects or items in their homes.