Odysseus (oh-DIH-see-uhs), a far-roving veteran of the Trojan War who, having incurred the anger of Poseidon by blinding the sea god’s son Polyphemus, a gigantic Cyclops, is fated to roam for ten years before he can return to his homeland of Ithaca. Leaving Troy, he and his followers sail first to Ismarus. In the sack of the Ciconian city, Odysseus spares the life of Maro, a priest of Apollo, who in turn gives the conqueror some jars of potent wine. Gales then drive the Greeks to the country of the Lotus-eaters, from which they sail to the land of the fierce Cyclopes. There Ulysses and twelve of his band are captured by Polyphemus. After Odysseus frees himself and his companions by a clever ruse, leaving the Cyclops maimed and blinded, the band journeys to the Isle of Aeolus. In the land of the Laestrygones, man-eating giants destroy all but one of his ships and devour their crews. At Aeaea, Odysseus outwits the enchantress Circe and frees his men after she has turned them into swine. In the dark region of the Cimmerians, he consults the shade of Tiresias, the Theban prophet, to learn what awaits him in Ithaca. Following the advice of Circe, Odysseus escapes the spell of the Sirens, passes safely between Scylla and Charybdis, and arrives at Thrinacia. There, his remaining comrades are drowned for their impiety in eating cattle sacred to Hyperion. Cast adrift, Odysseus floats to the island of Ogygia, where for seven years he lives with the lovely nymph Calypso. Finally, the gods take pity on him and order Calypso to release him. On a makeshift raft, he continues his voyage. After his raft is wrecked by Poseidon, he battles the waves until he arrives, exhausted, on the island of Drepane. Nausicaä, daughter of the king of the Phaeacians, finds him and leads him to the royal palace. Warmly received by King Alcinous, Odysseus takes part in celebration games and tells the story of his adventures. Alcinous gives Odysseus rich gifts and returns the wanderer by ship to Ithaca. There, in disguise, he meets his son Telemachus, now grown to manhood, routs and kills the suitors who throng his palace, and is reunited with his loyal wife Penelope. Odysseus is the ideal Greek hero, eloquent at the council board, courageous in battle, resourceful in danger, and crafty in wisdom. He is the darling of the goddess Athena, who aids him whenever it is in her power to do so.

Athena is the daughter of Zeus and often referred to in The Odyssey with the epithet “the grey-eyed goddess Athena.” She is one of the most important characters, as she consistently and discreetly assists both Odysseus and Telemachus in their journeys. In book 14, she reveals to Odysseus that he is her favorite among mortals.

Athena’s interventions on behalf of Odysseus take many forms. In book 5, she stills the waters Poseidon has whipped into a frenzy in his attempt to destroy Odysseus’s ship, and Odysseus and his crew are able to reach the shore. Later, on Ithaca, Athena comes to Odysseus’s aid to conspire with him in overthrowing the suitors and to disguise him as a beggar. Though she doesn’t fight the suitors herself, she urges Odysseus on, reminding him of his deeds at Troy, and deflects the suitors’ spears.

In her guise as Mentor and Mentes, Athena is equally supportive of Telemachus. She encourages him to stand up to the suitors, assuring him that his father is indeed alive; and she sends him to Pylos and Sparta to establish hospitable relationships with their ruling families, helping him to grow in confidence and experience.

In addition to being the goddess of wisdom and war, Athena is goddess of the arts traditionally associated with women, such as weaving. Penelope’s work at the loom reflects the dreams Athena brings her, which encourage Penelope to believe that Odysseus will return.

Telemachus is the son of Odysseus and Penelope. He grew up without a father, as Odysseus went off to fight in Troy when he was an infant. Throughout The Odyssey, Telemachus grows to manhood with the assistance of the goddess Athena, who protects him and instructs him in the responsibilities of a prince.

With Athena's assistance, Telemachus's helplessness at the beginning of the epic gradually subsides. He displays a newfound confidence when confronting the suitors, condemning how they have taken over his home and abused his mother's hospitality.

Telemachus is still young, however, and lacks his parents' slyness and experience. In book 22, he accidentally leaves a storeroom full of weapons unlocked, allowing the suitors to arm themselves. Telemachus remains somewhat careless, reflecting some of the rashness Odysseus displayed on the isle of the Cyclops.

When Odysseus returns to Ithaca, Telemachus helps his father slaughter the suitors. His fierce loyalty during the battle shows that Telemachus has the potential to equal his father as a warrior and eventually, perhaps, a king.

Penelope, the devoted wife of Odysseus, epitomizes loyalty and cunning, steadfastly awaiting her husband's return for almost two decades. Confronted by the pressures of numerous suitors, she skillfully navigates her predicament by weaving and nightly unraveling a shroud for Laertes, thereby buying time and keeping the suitors at bay. Her intelligence is further evidenced when she tests Odysseus's identity by questioning him about their marriage bed, a secret known only to them.

Throughout Odysseus's prolonged absence, Penelope's fidelity contrasts starkly with figures like Clytemnestra, highlighting her virtue. Her grief and longing for Odysseus are tempered by resourcefulness and perseverance, making her a paragon of marital fidelity and a symbol of patience and cleverness.

Her actions underscore themes of duty and cunning as she maintains the integrity of her household in Odysseus's absence, reflecting the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society. Upon Odysseus's return, she tests his knowledge of their shared secrets, confirming his identity and restoring their union.

Poseidon, god of the sea, is a formidable antagonist in Odysseus's journey. Enraged by the blinding of his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, Poseidon relentlessly hinders Odysseus's return to Ithaca with storms and shipwrecks. Despite his divine power, his efforts are ultimately counterbalanced by Athena's protection and Zeus's decrees, illustrating the complex dynamics of divine intervention in mortal affairs.

Poseidon's role emphasizes the theme of divine retribution and the trials heroes must endure, highlighting the obstacles Odysseus overcomes through resilience and cunning. His animosity towards Odysseus underscores the tensions between humans and gods, as well as the enduring struggle for justice and homecoming in the face of divine opposition.

Circe (SUR-see), an enchantress, the daughter of Helius and Perse. Arriving at Aeaea, Odysseus sends Eurylochus, his lieutenant, and twenty-two men ashore to explore the island. When they arrive at Circe’s palace, she invites them to feast with her. Eurylochus, almost as crafty as his master, remains outside, and through a window he sees the sorceress serve the men drugged food and then transform them into swine. Odysseus, on his way to rescue his companions, encounters the god Hermes, who gives him a flower called moly as a charm against the powers of the enchantress. Her power destroyed by the magic herb, Circe frees her captives from her magic spell and entertains Odysseus and his companions for a year. At the end of that time, Odysseus wishes to leave Circe’s bed and continue his journey. Though reluctant, she consents to his going, but first she advises him to consult the shade of Tiresias to learn what the future holds for the wanderers.

Calypso (kuh-LIHP-soh), the divine nymph who lives on the island of Ogygia, where Odysseus is washed ashore after his ship has foundered and his companions have drowned. For seven years, he lives as her bondman and husband, until Zeus sends Hermes to her with the message that Odysseus is to be released to return to his own land. Although she wishes him to stay with her and offers him immortality and youth in return, she yields to Odysseus’ own wishes and the divine command of Zeus. She teaches Odysseus how to build a raft and allows him to set sail before a favorable breeze.

Polyphemus, the Cyclops and son of Poseidon, presents a formidable obstacle to Odysseus and his men. Renowned for his size and savagery, Polyphemus captures and consumes several of Odysseus's crew. However, Odysseus's cunning enables their escape, as he blinds Polyphemus and flees beneath his sheep, inciting Poseidon's wrath and complicating their voyage home.

Polyphemus's encounter with Odysseus underscores themes of intelligence versus brute force, as well as the consequences of hubris. The Cyclops's role as an antagonist exemplifies the perils that Odysseus must navigate using his wits, showcasing his resourcefulness in overcoming seemingly insurmountable challenges.

Eumaeus, the loyal swineherd, embodies steadfast loyalty and nobility despite his lowly status. During Odysseus's long absence, Eumaeus remains faithful, providing refuge upon Odysseus's return to Ithaca. Though initially unaware of Odysseus's true identity due to his disguise, Eumaeus's allegiance never wavers.

His noble birth and enduring loyalty are exemplified when he aids Odysseus in the battle against the suitors, proving himself a devoted and courageous ally. Eumaeus's character highlights the importance of loyalty and the value of true friendship, serving as a contrast to the disloyalty exhibited by others in the household.

Eurycleia, the devoted nursemaid of Odysseus and Telemachus, is a stalwart figure within the household. Her loyalty is pivotal to the narrative, as she recognizes Odysseus by a scar on his thigh, yet keeps his identity secret until he chooses to reveal himself. Eurycleia's faithfulness is further demonstrated when she identifies the disloyal servants, assisting in purging the household of treachery.

Her character emphasizes steadfast loyalty and the protective role of familial bonds. As a guardian of the household's integrity, Eurycleia's actions underscore the themes of loyalty and justice, facilitating the restoration of order in Odysseus's home.

Tiresias (ti-REE-see-uhs), the prophet of Thebes. In the land of the Cimmerians, acting on the advice of Circe, Odysseus summons the aged seer’s shade from the dead. Tiresias tells him not to harm the sacred cattle of Hyperion; otherwise, Odysseus will encounter many difficulties and delays on his homeward journey, he will find trouble in the royal house when he arrives there, he will be forced to make a journey into a land so far from the sea that its people will mistake an oar for a winnowing fan, he will be forced to make a rich sacrifice to Poseidon in that distant land, and in his old age he will meet death coming to him out of the sea.

Laertes, the father of Odysseus, is a poignant figure in The Odyssey, representing the older generation left behind during the heroic quests. Living in seclusion and grief during Odysseus's absence, he tends to his land in Ithaca. His reunion with Odysseus is a moment of renewal, as he joins his son in defending their home against the suitors' vengeful kinsmen.

Laertes's character underscores the themes of familial bonds and the pain of separation endured by those left behind. His eventual participation in the restoration of Odysseus's household highlights the resilience of familial love and the reunification that comes with the hero's return, bridging the gap between the past and the future generations of Ithaca.

Nausicaä, the compassionate Phaeacian princess, discovers Odysseus washed ashore and assists him by providing clothing and guidance to her father's palace. Her kindness earns Odysseus the hospitality of King Alcinous, ultimately facilitating his return to Ithaca.

Nausicaä's encounter with Odysseus highlights themes of hospitality and divine intervention, as her aid is instrumental in his journey home. Her character embodies the virtues of compassion and generosity, reflecting the cultural importance of welcoming strangers in Greek society.

Alcinous, the Phaeacian king, exemplifies the cultural values of hospitality and generosity. He extends a warm welcome to Odysseus, hosting him in his court and providing a ship for his journey home. Alcinous's willingness to assist Odysseus underscores the importance of guest-friendship, a central theme in the narrative.

Alcinous's kingdom serves as a pivotal stop in Odysseus's voyage, emphasizing the significance of alliances and the bonds formed through hospitality. His character reinforces the narrative's exploration of cultural customs and the interconnectedness of human relationships in the epic.

Arete, queen of the Phaeacians and wife of Alcinous, is revered for her wisdom and kindness. Her approval is sought by Odysseus, reflecting her matriarchal influence in Phaeacian society. Arete's favorable reception of Odysseus aids in securing Alcinous’s support for his journey home.

Arete's character highlights the importance of female authority and insight in the epic, underscoring the influential roles women can play in guiding and supporting heroes. Her interactions with Odysseus emphasize themes of respect, wisdom, and the facilitation of successful journeys.

Menelaus, king of Sparta and husband of Helen, provides Telemachus with insight into the Achaean leaders' fates. His hospitality and openness about his own struggles enrich Telemachus’s understanding of the broader consequences of the Trojan War.

Menelaus’s character reinforces themes of reconciliation and the enduring impact of war, as well as the value of sharing experiences and knowledge to foster understanding and growth among the next generation of heroes.

Helen of Sparta, whose elopement with Paris sparked the Trojan War, remains regal and dignified upon Telemachus’s visit. Her complex history and relationship with Menelaus underscore themes of love and betrayal, while her beauty and grace continue to captivate those around her.

Helen's character illustrates her lasting influence and allure, serving as a symbol of both the causes and effects of the Trojan War. Her interactions with Telemachus offer insights into the personal dimensions of epic events, highlighting the human stories within the grand narrative.

Antinous, the most audacious of Penelope’s suitors, exemplifies the arrogance and entitlement of those who sought to usurp Odysseus’s throne. His leadership in the suitors’ schemes to kill Telemachus and his mockery of Odysseus in disguise mark him as a primary antagonist.

His death initiates the suitors’ downfall, illustrating the consequences of hubris and injustice. Antinous's role underscores the themes of retribution and the restoration of order, serving as a foil to the virtuous characters who assist Odysseus in reclaiming his home.

Eurymachus is another of Penelope’s suitors, known for his duplicity and ambition. He manipulates situations to his advantage, often masking his true intentions with charm. Despite his attempts to negotiate with Odysseus, he meets his end alongside the other suitors, illustrating the futility of deceit and betrayal.

Eurymachus's character highlights the themes of cunning versus integrity, as his treachery contrasts with the honesty and loyalty embodied by the heroes. His downfall reinforces the narrative's moral framework, emphasizing the ultimate triumph of justice and righteousness.

Theoclymenus, a fugitive prophet, joins Telemachus on his journey back to Ithaca. His prophecies, including the foretelling of the suitors’ doom, add a layer of divine insight to the narrative, reinforcing the theme of fate and the gods’ influence over mortal affairs.

Theoclymenus's presence underscores the significance of prophecy in guiding the characters' actions and decisions, contributing to the epic's exploration of foreknowledge and destiny. His role highlights the intertwining of human and divine narratives within The Odyssey.

Peiraeus, a loyal friend to Telemachus, accompanies him to Pylos and helps manage affairs upon their return. His steadfastness and reliability highlight the theme of friendship and loyalty, essential traits in the turbulent landscape of Ithaca.

Peiraeus's character exemplifies the supportive alliances that underpin the heroes' endeavors, showcasing the importance of camaraderie and trust in achieving success. His role enhances the narrative's portrayal of loyal companionship as a cornerstone of heroic exploits.

Mentor, an elder of Ithaca, provides guidance and support in Odysseus's absence. Frequently used as a disguise by Athena, his presence signifies wisdom and the transmission of knowledge, emphasizing the role of mentorship and divine influence in the epic.

Mentor's character underscores the value of guidance and the nurturing of potential, contributing to the development of Telemachus and the restoration of order. His interactions highlight the transformative power of mentorship in shaping the next generation of leaders.

Melanthius, the disloyal goatherd, aligns himself with the suitors, betraying Odysseus’s household. His actions serve as a stark contrast to characters like Eumaeus and Philoetius, who remain loyal. His eventual punishment reflects the consequences of treachery and disloyalty.

Melanthius's character illustrates the dangers of disloyalty and the importance of fidelity in the epic's moral framework. His downfall reinforces the themes of justice and the restoration of rightful order in Odysseus's home.

Melantho, a maid in Penelope’s court, betrays her mistress by consorting with the suitors. Her infidelity and disrespect highlight the theme of household disloyalty and serve as a foil to Penelope’s steadfastness.

Melantho's actions emphasize the challenges of maintaining integrity and loyalty amidst temptation and corruption. Her role underscores the narrative's exploration of betrayal and the consequences of moral failings within the domestic sphere.

Medon, the herald, is spared during the suitors’ massacre due to his kindness to Telemachus. His survival underscores the theme of justice and mercy, differentiating between those who are guilty and the innocent.

Medon's character highlights the importance of compassion and fairness in the epic's moral landscape, illustrating the potential for redemption and the value of discernment in administering justice. His survival marks the triumph of clemency over indiscriminate retribution.

Phemius, the bard, is compelled to entertain the suitors but remains loyal to Odysseus’s household. His life is spared upon Telemachus’s insistence, highlighting the power of music and art to transcend conflict and the value of clemency.

Phemius's character underscores the cultural significance of storytelling and the arts as instruments of both entertainment and moral reflection. His survival affirms the enduring influence of artistic expression and the themes of mercy and justice in the narrative.

Eurynome, the housekeeper of Odysseus’s household, maintains order amidst the chaos of the suitors’ presence. Her role, though minor, reflects the challenges faced by the loyal members of Odysseus’s household during his absence.

Eurynome's character emphasizes the perseverance and dedication required to uphold integrity and stability within the domestic sphere, contributing to the epic's exploration of loyalty and the restorative power of order and justice.

Maro, the priest of Apollo in Ismarus, bears a significant but indirect influence on Odysseus’s adventures. By gifting Odysseus potent wine, he inadvertently aids in the escape from Polyphemus, demonstrating how acts of kindness can have far-reaching effects.

Maro's character highlights the themes of generosity and its unforeseen consequences, illustrating the interconnectedness of actions and outcomes in the epic's narrative web. His role underscores the narrative's exploration of chance encounters and their impact on the hero's journey.

Elpenor, one of Odysseus’s crew, dies tragically after falling from Circe’s roof. His spirit’s plea for a proper burial in the Underworld underscores themes of respect for the dead and the lingering impact of past actions.

Elpenor's character serves as a reminder of the moral obligations that persist beyond death, emphasizing the importance of honoring customs and the consequences of neglecting duty. His story reinforces the epic's exploration of mortality and remembrance.

Halitherses, a prophetic elder of Ithaca, foretells Odysseus’s return and the suitors’ demise. His observations on the flight of birds emphasize the role of prophecy and interpretation of omens in guiding human decision-making.

Halitherses's character highlights the influence of prophetic insight in the epic, illustrating how foreknowledge shapes the actions and beliefs of characters. His role underscores the narrative's thematic exploration of fate and divine intervention.

Irus, a beggar in Ithaca, becomes an unwilling opponent to Odysseus in disguise. His defeat at Odysseus’s hands serves as a prelude to the latter’s ultimate confrontation with the suitors, illustrating themes of identity and justice.

Irus's character represents the trials of disguise and deception, highlighting the challenges of maintaining integrity and self-awareness amidst adversity. His role contributes to the narrative's examination of identity and the restoration of rightful order.

Hermes, the messenger god, aids Odysseus at critical junctures, including freeing him from Calypso’s island and providing protection against Circe’s magic. His interventions symbolize the gods’ direct involvement in mortal affairs.

Hermes's character underscores the theme of divine intervention and the influence of the gods in directing the hero's path. His role highlights the interconnectedness of human and divine narratives, contributing to the epic's exploration of fate and guidance.

Zeus, the king of the gods, plays a more background role in The Odyssey, yet his decisions influence the course of events. He enforces divine justice, approving of Odysseus’s vengeance against the suitors and directing Hermes to liberate Odysseus from Calypso.

Zeus’s authority ensures the balance between divine will and mortal action, emphasizing the overarching theme of justice and order. His role highlights the interplay between divine authority and human agency, contributing to the narrative's exploration of cosmic order and morality.

Eurylochus (ew-RIH-luh-kuhs), the lieutenant of Odysseus. He reports to Odysseus that the enchantress Circe has turned half of his band into swine. It is at his suggestion that the Greeks kill some of Hyperion’s sacred cattle and eat them while Odysseus is sleeping. To punish their act of impiety, Zeus causes the Greek ship to founder, and all but Odysseus are drowned.

Noëmon (noh-EE-muhn), one of the most generous and least offensive of the suitors. He lends Telemachus his own ship in which to sail to Pylos.

Nestor, the wise king of Pylos, embodies the value of wisdom and mentorship in Greek culture. Visited by Telemachus during his quest for news of Odysseus, Nestor offers guidance and hospitality, although lacking direct information about Odysseus’s whereabouts.

Nestor's character represents the enduring wisdom of the elder generation, providing counsel and support to the younger heroes. His interactions with Telemachus illustrate the importance of mentorship and the transmission of knowledge across generations, contributing to Telemachus's growth and development.

Peisistratus, the youngest son of Nestor, accompanies Telemachus to Sparta, demonstrating the bond between neighboring kingdoms and the importance of alliance and friendship. His role emphasizes the interconnectedness of Greek rulers and the shared cultural heritage that binds them.

Peisistratus's companionship with Telemachus underscores the themes of friendship and the collaborative nature of quests, highlighting the supportive networks that aid in the heroes' journeys. His presence enriches the narrative's exploration of kinship and alliance within the heroic landscape.