who in 1967 refused the draft on religious grounds. Ali’s case escalated to the courts, resulting in a five-year prison sentence and a $10,000 fine, though the judgment was later overturned by the Supreme Court, liberating him. Despite this legal victory, Ali faced severe repercussions in his boxing career. When he rejected the draft, the World Boxing Association and the New York State Athletic Commission stripped him of his championship title and revoked his license, a decision only rescinded following the Supreme Court's ruling, allowing Ali to return to the ring.

Beyond draft resistance, many protested the war itself through public demonstrations, often designed to be peaceful. One of the most significant—and tragic—of these protests occurred at Kent State University in May 1970. Following President Richard Nixon's April 30 announcement of U.S. military expansion into Cambodia, Kent State erupted in demonstrations. As protests devolved into riots and arson, Ohio's governor summoned the National Guard to restore order. On May 4, amidst escalating tensions, Guardsmen opened fire on the assembly, resulting in the deaths of four students and injuries to several others. Although a large number of students were involved in the antiwar protest, some were merely bystanders, caught up in the chaos while having lunch or observing events. The identities of the deceased as protesters were never confirmed. This somber episode ignited a wave of protests across nationwide campuses, leading to temporary closures as the unrest spread.

Expressionism: A Canvas of Emotion
Beginning its vibrant dance across the stage of drama and visual arts in Germany during the early 1910s, Expressionism emerged as a movement that defied precise definition. This lack of concrete boundaries perfectly mirrored the essence of expressionistic creations, which relish in distorting reality to convey deeper emotions and thoughts. In the intriguing play The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail, authors Lawrence and Lee masterfully warp reality, depicting their narrative within a fluid, dream-like realm where characters, especially Henry, drift seamlessly through the corridors of time and space. These surreal episodes captivate and disorient the audience, echoing the playwrights' message: activism is an unpredictable journey, fraught with discomfort, much like the tumultuous conflicts of Thoreau's Mexican War era and the Vietnam War period of the 1970s.

Shifts Through Time and Space
As mentioned, characters in the play often traverse the boundaries of time. These temporal and spatial leaps occur around Henry’s jail cell, a constant presence on stage. Despite this anchor, Henry frequently departs—sometimes in body, sometimes in mind—to explore different eras and locations. One poignant instance is when John visits Henry, who is entranced, lost in a memory of Waldo's speech at Harvard. As John observes Henry, still ensnared by his Harvard vision, he quips, "Now here's a rare specimen—."

The stage illuminates with "The light intensifies on Henry and John—the amber of sunny fields," transforming the scene from a stark cell to a sunlit meadow. John’s continued conversation prompts Henry to awaken from his reverie, signaling the shift to a meadow post-Harvard. Lighting and dialogue guide the audience’s understanding, revealing the play’s new backdrop. At times, the playwrights signal these transitions by having characters move across the stage or interact with props like chairs or lockers.

Yet, these cues, often subtle, challenge the audience to discern the evolving setting. For instance, early in the second act, after Henry's heated exchange with Lydian about conformity, a simple stage direction—"Lydian has reached for a little straw berry-basket"—smoothly transitions the scene to a prior moment before Henry takes young Edward huckleberry hunting. Lydian’s call, "Edward? (The little boy comes running to her.) Go along with Mr. Thoreau," shifts the scene through words and action, enhancing the expressionistic, dreamlike quality that eventually culminates in Henry's transformative nightmare.

Foils Illuminating the Activist’s Path
Within the play, each character is meticulously crafted to contrast with Henry, serving as a foil that accentuates his activist zeal. A foil character illuminates certain traits of another, and in this narrative, Henry's activism is highlighted against the backdrop of others’ relative passivity. The intellectual Waldo, restrained by his own contemplations, is the most noticeable foil. Henry’s brother, John, initially shares Henry’s innovative educational vision, famously stating, "All a school needs is a mind that sends, and minds that receive." They establish a school together, but disillusionment eventually leads John to abandon this idealistic path for the mundane security of a pencil factory job, leaving Henry steadfast in his pursuit of nature and simplicity.

Even Ellen Sewell becomes a counterpoint to Henry. Initially, Ellen is captivated by Henry’s teachings, taking copious notes. As Henry advises, "Don't just remember what I said. Remember what I'm talking about," Ellen gradually grasps the essence of nonconformity but never fully embraces transcendentalism. Henry’s call to "transcend the limits of yourself" remains daunting for Ellen, who remains "a little bit afraid—just—to 'be!'" Her retreat to the comfort of conformity underscores Henry’s solitary determination to embody the transcendental ideal that Waldo envisions, marking him as the quintessential activist.

• Mid-1840s: The United States embarks on a harsh and unforgiving conflict with Mexico, driven by its ambition to expand its territorial reach.

  Late 1960s-Early 1970s: In the fervor of the Cold War, the United States plunges into the turmoil of Vietnam, determined to halt the relentless march of Communism across Southeast Asia.

  Today: The United States finds itself entrenched in the rugged terrains of Afghanistan, on a mission to unearth elusive terrorist factions.

• Mid-1840s: President Polk, with Congress's backing, ignites the U.S.-Mexican War, justifying it with claims of Mexico's aggression on American territory—territory, however, that is locked in a border dispute and not officially recognized as American land. It is Polk’s strategic positioning of troops in this contested zone that provokes the Mexican military’s assault.

  Late 1960s-Early 1970s: Armed with sweeping authority from Congress, President Johnson escalates the Vietnam War following two contentious attacks on American naval destroyers—one confirmed, the other shrouded in uncertainty. Despite Johnson’s assertion of these ships being on routine patrol in neutral waters, their covert operations in enemy waters spark the initial attack.

  Today: The War on Terrorism erupts in the wake of the chilling attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, where terrorists hurl hijacked planes into these iconic structures. Captured by live broadcasts, these atrocities galvanize widespread public support for President Bush and Congress's aggressive campaign against terrorism.

• Mid-1840s: Amidst the U.S.-Mexican War, dissent brews in the North, and figures like Thoreau stand out for their principled defiance, echoing their disapproval by refusing to pay taxes that fund the conflict.

  Late 1960s-Early 1970s: A wave of resistance sweeps young American men as they stand against the Vietnam War. They voice their opposition through burning draft cards, fleeing abroad, and participating in escalating protests, both peaceful and violent.

  Today: A tide of patriotism swells the ranks of the American military, as men and women across the nation rally to combat terrorism with renewed vigor.

Sources
Eades, Ronald W. "Fiction Draws Students into Culture of Law." In Law Teacher. Spring 1997.

Lawrence, Jerome, and Robert E. Lee. Foreword to "The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail." In The Selected Plays of Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, edited by Alan Woods. Ohio State University Press, 1995, p. 456.

_____. "The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail." In The Selected Plays of Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, edited by Alan Woods. Ohio State University Press, 1995, pp. 459-64, 467-69, 471-72, 474-75, 480-81, 483, 486-87, 489-90, 494-502, 505-06.

_____. "The Now Thoreau." In The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail. Bantam Books, 1971, p. vii.

_____. "Production Notes from the Playwrights." In The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail. Bantam Books, 1971, p. 113.

Rawson, Christopher. Review of The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail. In Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 5, 1998.

Wagenknecht, Edward. "Wider Circles." In Henry David Thoreau. University of Massachusetts Press Amherst, 1981, p. 109.

Woods, Alan. "General Introduction." In The Selected Plays of Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, edited by Alan Woods. Ohio State University Press, 1995, p. ix.

_____. Introduction to "The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail." In The Selected Plays of Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee, edited by Alan Woods. Ohio State University Press, 1995, p. 449, 452.

_____. "Jerome Lawrence." In Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 228: Twentieth-Century American Dramatists, Second Series, edited by Christopher J. Wheatley. The Gale Group, 2000, p. 161-70.

Further Reading
Burkett, B. G. Stolen Valor: How the Vietnam Generation Was Robbed of Its Heroes and Its History. Verity Press, 1998. Burkett, a Vietnam veteran and reporter, was featured on the newsmagazine show "20/20" for this unflinching look at the ways in which Vietnam veterans have been misunderstood, in part due to the actions of some who have tarnished the image of this generation. Exhaustively researched, the book helps to set the record straight about a very painful time in American history.

Eisenhower, John S. D. So Far from God: The U.S. War with Mexico 1846-1848. University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. Eisenhower's in-depth history of the Mexican War offers depictions of the major military leaders from the United States, some of whom featured prominently in the Civil War two decades later. The book also views the war in its historical context, addressing the different American viewpoints of those in the North and those in the South.

Field, Ron. Mexican-American War 1846-48. Brasseys, Inc., 1997. This book offers a thoroughly illustrated history of the uniforms, equipment, and weapons of both the Mexican and American armies. From the American forces, the book covers United States Regulars, Texas Rangers, and Militia members. Although information on Mexican forces is rare, this book makes good use of the available resources.

Johannsen, Robert Walter. To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1988. Johannsen analyzes the Mexican War in view of the fact that it was the first foreign war that was heavily reported in the press. As such, it greatly affected the imagination of an America that was trying to find its identity. The book draws on a number of firsthand accounts and other original sources.

Kent, Stephen A. From Slogans to Mantras: Social Protest and Religious Conversion in the Late Vietnam Era. Syracuse University Press, 2001. At the same time that young Americans were engaging in the antiwar counterculture movement, many also chose to join alternative, and sometimes radical, spiritual groups and cults. Kent, a sociologist, presents the unique view that this often overlooked trend was motivated mainly by politics, not spirituality.

Leckie, Robert. From Sea to Shining Sea: From the War of 1812 to the Mexican War, the Saga of America's Expansion. HarperPerennial, 1994. Leckie examines this rich period in America's early history as an independent nation. The shape of the modern continental United States was largely determined by the end of the Mexican War, and the book offers many anecdotes that illustrate the major events during America's territorial growth, including the major people involved in the expansion.

Martin, Susan, ed. Decade of Protest: Political Posters from the United States, Viet Nam, Cuba, 1965-1975. Distributed Art Publishers, 1996. The United States was not the only nation that experienced massive antiwar protests among its citizens during the Vietnam War; many people in Vietnam and Cuba also protested the war. This unique book collects samples of the various protest posters that were produced in the three countries. The images are combined with essays that give background on the posters and the historical and cultural contexts in which they were created.