Dante Alighieri, the renowned Italian poet, aptly referred to Aristotle as "the master of those who know," a phrase that captures the dual facets of Aristotle's profound influence and expansive knowledge. His mastery is evident not only in his grasp of the wisdom of predecessors but also in his lasting impact on successive generations of philosophers, rivaled only by Plato. This dual mastery shines through in Nicomachean Ethics, a cornerstone of philosophical thought. Aristotle's work stands out not just for acknowledging the insights of earlier thinkers but also for laying the groundwork for many ethical concepts embraced by later philosophers. Although interpretations of the text vary among scholars, consensus holds that its current form was never intended for publication; rather, it represents an exposition of Aristotle’s ethical principles as articulated by his son, Nicomachus. The Eudemian Ethics, documented by Aristotle's pupil Eudemus, complements this fundamental treatise.

The Nicomachean Ethics is firmly embedded within a comprehensive framework of scientific and philosophical inquiry, underpinned by a teleological perspective of the universe. According to this view, understanding anything involves an exploration of its purpose and direction, intrinsic to its form and nature. Within this context, Aristotle's approach to ethics is a form of naturalism that transcends simplistic reductionism; it distinguishes a more profound interpretation of "nature" from mere occurrence. While the text hints at the distinction between the factual and the ideal, it does not fully develop this idea. Nonetheless, it positions virtue within a normative framework—the "oughtness" of ethical behavior is aligned with the ends or purposes that define it. In Aristotle’s view, there is no need for an external, supernatural source of moral obligation. Instead, his ethical system is robustly grounded in his psychological and metaphysical understanding, making it a highly influential and enduring contribution to philosophical thought.

Aristotle's exploration of the concept of "the good" delves into the intricacies of human and animal behavior, posing the idea that every action or pursuit aims toward some form of good. This inquiry into "the good" reveals that while various aims exist, some goods are sought for their own sake and others as means to an end. To prevent an endless chain of instrumental goods, Aristotle posits the necessity of intrinsic goods, identifying the ultimate good with characteristics of finality and self-sufficiency, epitomized by happiness.

Exploring Happiness as the Ultimate Good

Aristotle argues that happiness is universally considered final and self-sufficient, a state that leaves nothing further to be desired. While people wish for other goods to secure happiness, happiness itself is never desired for the sake of something else. However, this consensus on the value of happiness is superficial, as actual definitions of happiness vary greatly, prompting Aristotle to undertake a more detailed examination.

Contrasting Theories of Goodness

Aristotle engages with prior philosophical theories, notably those of his teacher, Plato, who conceived the good as a self-subsistent essence or universal form. According to Plato, individual good things derive their goodness by participating in this form. Aristotle challenges this notion, arguing that if the good were solely this abstract form, it would be devoid of content and irrelevant to practical pursuits. Thus, he shifts focus to discovering a good that aligns with human existence.

The Human Good in Aristotle's Framework

To locate the specifically human good, Aristotle examines the distinctive form and function of humans. He builds upon the concept of matter and form, transformed from Platonic philosophy. In this view, matter and form represent potentiality and actuality, with matter being the substance and form the structure. These aspects only separate in analysis, as matter without form lacks definition, and...

Aristotle's exploration of virtue presents a nuanced understanding of how human excellence is achieved through the balance of various aspects of the soul. He differentiates between the rational and irrational elements within the human soul, each contributing to the development of moral and intellectual virtues. Through the application of reason and the pursuit of a mean relative to individual circumstances, Aristotle articulates a complex framework for understanding virtue and its role in human flourishing.

The Soul and Its Functions

Aristotle posits that humanity's purpose is intrinsically linked to the soul, which he describes not as an entity, but as a function of living organisms. Every living being possesses a soul that reflects its functional capabilities: the vegetative soul in plants, a sensory and appetitive soul in animals, and a rational soul in humans. Excellence, or virtue (areté in Greek), is fundamentally tied to how effectively an entity fulfills its inherent function. Thus, "human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete."

Rational and Irrational Elements

Within the human soul, Aristotle distinguishes between the irrational and rational components. The irrational part includes the vegetative function beyond direct rational control and the appetitive function, which can be guided by reason. The rational segment encompasses calculative and scientific capacities. Each function corresponds to different categories of virtues, divided broadly into moral and intellectual types.

Moral Virtues and the Mean

To define moral virtues, Aristotle uses the concept of the mean, a balance point between two extremes. This balance ensures well-being, just as an athlete maintains fitness through the right amount of nourishment. However, this mean is not an absolute midpoint; it is relative to individual needs, such as a wrestler requiring more sustenance than a businessperson. Aristotle explains, “Virtue . . . is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e., the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle . . . by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it." This mean represents a middle course between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency.

Contextual Nature of Virtue

Virtue, according to Aristotle, involves acting or feeling appropriately concerning time, objects, people, motives, and manner. Although the mean may vary, most situations possess a recognizable middle ground identified by the wise and good individual. Aristotle acknowledges that his virtue framework isn't exhaustive, admitting that some actions and emotions, like spite or envy, lack a virtuous mean.

Justice: A Major Virtue

Justice, as a significant virtue, requires a nuanced interpretation separate from the general virtue mean. In its particular form, justice pertains to the distribution of external goods like honor or wealth, where the mean is an equitable share. Distributive justice follows a proportional relationship between individuals and their merits, illustrated by the formula A:B :C:D, indicating not equality in quantity but in proportion. Rectificatory justice focuses on rectifying imbalances by treating individuals as equals, restoring fairness through equivalent gain and loss.

Perpetuation of Virtue and Vice

Aristotle argues that virtues and vices self-perpetuate, becoming both causes and consequences of actions. Though actions and character traits are voluntary, specific choices precede actions, and the development of character is gradual. People remain accountable for their actions and character, as ignorance caused by negligence is inexcusable. The good person perceives "the truth in each class of things, being as it were the norm and measure of them."

The Good Life and Virtuous Living

Though Aristotle's ethics avoid strict deontological frameworks, they aim to cultivate individuals who align with "the sort of person that the right rule prescribes." Virtuous individuals desire what they should, how they should, and when they should, guided by rational principles. They do not experience life as restrictive or puritanical but enjoy the fullest life by reaching their highest potential. Aristotle describes pride as "a sort of crown of the virtues," highlighting it as a balance between vanity and humility. Proud individuals, in Aristotle's view, are courageous, noble, and dignified, embodying virtues that enhance their lives and the lives of others around them.

Aristotle delves deeply into the concept of friendship, asserting its essential role in leading a good life. He categorizes friendships into three distinct types: those founded on utility, those pursued for pleasure, and those between individuals of similar virtuous character, cherished for their inherent goodness. Among these, the latter is deemed the highest, rarest, and most enduring form of friendship.

This exploration of friendship naturally leads to an examination of the relationship between benevolence and self-love. Aristotle's ideas intersect with those of later thinkers like Scottish philosopher David Hume and Bishop Joseph Butler. He argues that understanding "self-love" necessitates distinguishing between its higher and lower forms. While selfish pursuits of wealth or physical pleasure are certainly deserving of criticism, true self-love is characterized by striving for what aligns with one's highest nature—qualities such as justice, temperance, and nobility.

According to Aristotle, if individuals were to seek the highest good for themselves, self-love would contribute to the greatest common welfare. True self-love, therefore, is intertwined with beneficence and may even involve sacrificing one's wealth or life for the sake of friends and country. In this manner, Aristotle posits that a virtuous person requires friendships to fully practice and express their virtues.

The pursuit of intellectual virtue is essential for a good life, as it complements moral virtue and guides us towards wise choices. Aristotle's exploration of intellectual virtues highlights the complexity of human reasoning, emphasizing the importance of both moral and intellectual dimensions in making sound decisions. The interplay between practical and philosophic wisdom, along with other intellectual virtues, forms the core of Aristotle’s ethical philosophy, where the ultimate goal is achieving happiness and the good life.

Intellectual and Moral Virtues

For Aristotle, the intellectual virtues are pivotal because they influence choice—a process he describes as "either desiderative reason or ratiocinative desire.” Good choice, therefore, hinges on both right desire and accurate reasoning. Aristotle avoids subjectivism by advocating for a standard against which the rightness and truth of choices are measured. He argues for a balanced approach, where decisions are made based on a mean state that lies between excess and deficiency. The contemplative intellect seeks truth for its own sake; however, it lacks direct motivation, necessitating the practical intellect's role in aligning truth with right desire.

Practical Wisdom and Its Role

Among intellectual virtues, practical wisdom is most closely tied to moral virtue. Defined as "a true and reasoned state of capacity to act with regard to the things that are good or bad for man," practical wisdom involves deliberation about contingent, rather than eternal, matters. Its focus is on choosing the best means to achieve a good life, employing the productive intellect to direct feelings and desires. Operating on the calculative level, which is one of the rational aspects of the soul, practical wisdom requires recognizing both the means and the ends. Aristotle asserts that one cannot be truly good without practical wisdom, nor can one be practically wise without moral virtue, distinguishing it from mere cleverness.

Intuitive Reason and Scientific Knowledge

Practical wisdom is underpinned by intuitive reason, which grasps first principles, universals, and specific particulars—the foundational elements with which practical wisdom operates. Intuitive reason also provides the first principles for scientific knowledge, a virtue concerned solely with the eternal and logically necessary. While scientific knowledge involves understanding the logical implications of these first principles, it remains distinct from practical wisdom as it does not address the practicalities of human action.

Philosophic Wisdom: The Pinnacle of Understanding

Aristotle considers philosophic wisdom the highest form of intellectual virtue, combining scientific knowledge with intuitive reason. However, it is not oriented towards the highest human good, as Aristotle acknowledges that humanity is not the supreme entity in the universe compared to divine entities. Philosophic wisdom, though not directed at practical outcomes, represents the highest good for humans, manifesting happiness as an end rather than a means. Critics might argue against its practicality, but Aristotle maintains that philosophic wisdom, through contemplation, constitutes the ultimate human activity, with practical wisdom setting the stage for its realization, much like medicine facilitates health.

Aristotle's exploration of happiness in "Nicomachean Ethics" delves into the complex interplay between pleasure, virtue, and human fulfillment. He critically examines the notion of pleasure as the ultimate good, concluding that while pleasure has its place, true happiness transcends mere euphoria. Aristotle's conception of happiness is more about virtuous activities, particularly the life of contemplation, reflecting a profound philosophical perspective on human existence.

The Role of Pleasure

Aristotle begins by acknowledging the widespread belief that pleasure is a significant good, often regarded as the summum bonum, or the highest good. He scrutinizes arguments supporting this view, recognizing that both humans and animals instinctively seek pleasure. This inclination suggests that pleasure plays a critical role in fulfilling activities, aligning with the notion that "the good is that at which all things aim." However, Aristotle is careful to qualify this by noting that not all pleasures are equally valuable. Pleasures vary just as activities do, and each activity has a corresponding pleasure.

Some pleasures complete acts deemed vicious or counterproductive, while others may obstruct the realization of more meaningful activities. Adding to Plato's argument, Aristotle suggests that the desirability of pleasure is enhanced when combined with other goods, such as wisdom. This assertion challenges the notion of pleasure as a self-sufficient good, positioning it instead as an integral component of happiness.

Happiness as a State of Being

In Aristotle's view, happiness is not merely a transient feeling or a euphoric state but a state of being. It is an activity aligned with virtue, inherently valuable for its own sake. As he elaborates, the highest form of happiness involves the highest virtue, which he identifies as contemplative. Contemplation, according to Aristotle, offers a more continuous and pure form of pleasure than other activities, requiring minimal material needs and yielding no immediate practical outcomes. This suggests that contemplation is pursued for its own intrinsic value.

Aristotle equates this contemplative life with the ideal human activity, likening it to the divine. He argues that the essence of humanity is defined by reason, making a life guided by reason the most fulfilling. This rationale places the life of contemplation at the apex of happiness, as it embodies the fullest expression of human potential.

The Practical Elements of Happiness

While Aristotle's conclusion may seem overly rationalistic, he acknowledges the necessity of a complete life that satisfies both bodily and intellectual needs. He concedes that not everyone is capable of leading a life of pure contemplation, recognizing that most people require moral virtues to navigate the "all too human" aspects of existence—those governed by a blend of reason and irrational desires.

Aristotle posits that moral virtues play a critical role in the pursuit of happiness, especially for those unable to achieve it through reason and self-discipline alone. This acknowledgment underlines the importance of legislation and societal structures in fostering virtuous behavior, a theme further explored in his subsequent work, "Politica."

Happiness in the Context of Human Potential

Aristotle is mindful of the speculative nature of his method and invites readers to test his conclusions against empirical facts. He emphasizes that any discrepancies between theory and reality should prompt reconsideration of his ideas. However, Aristotle encourages a reluctant acceptance of this alternative, given the theory's integration within his broader philosophical system.

Ultimately, Aristotle's exploration of happiness highlights a distinctive human excellence rooted in reason, balanced by the engagement of senses and appetites. By conceptualizing happiness as the actualization of humanity's natural potential, he offers a compelling ethical conviction that continues to resonate through the ages. This vision not only defines virtue and pleasure but also presents a framework for understanding the purposeful process of human life within a universal context.

Aristotle's exploration into human nature and virtue in his foundational work, "Nicomachean Ethics," presents a profound understanding of the purpose or end that all beings, including humans, are inherently inclined to fulfill. This exploration hinges on the identification of a specific good that serves as the essence of human nature. Within this framework, Aristotle distinguishes between two levels of human nature: the rational and the nonrational, each embodying its unique virtue.

The Levels of Human Nature

The rational level of human nature, according to Aristotle, is characterized by the pursuit and contemplation of truth, representing an intellectual virtue valued for its own sake. However, this pursuit is not sufficient for achieving morality on its own. Morality emerges when the rational and nonrational aspects of human nature converge harmoniously. The nonrational level encompasses vegetative functions, such as growth, which are beyond the influence of reason, and appetitive functions, like hunger and desire, which can be guided by reason.

In this context, moral virtue arises when the "appetite" aligns with the good discerned by intellect. Achieving moral virtue entails not only understanding but also the cultivation of consistent moral behavior through practice and habit formation. Aristotle suggests that virtue often lies in a balanced mean between two extremes. For instance, courage is positioned between the extremes of rashness and cowardice.

Interpreting Aristotle's Thought

The depth of Aristotle's philosophy has inspired numerous scholars to explore and clarify his ideas further. J.L. Ackrill's "Essays on Plato and Aristotle" provides reflective insights into the philosophical contributions of both thinkers, while Mortimer J. Adler's work, "Aristotle for Everybody: Difficult Thought Made Easy," offers an accessible introduction to Aristotle’s complex ideas.

Feminist perspectives have also engaged with Aristotle’s work, as seen in Bat-Ami Bar On's edited volume, "Engendering Origins: Critical Feminist Readings in Plato and Aristotle," which presents significant feminist critiques. Jonathan Barnes’ studies, including "Aristotle" and "The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle," serve as essential guides for understanding the philosopher's thoughts, with the latter offering essays on major aspects of his work.

Sarah Broadie's "Ethics with Aristotle" gives a comprehensive examination of his ethical theory and its implications, while Robert S. Brumbaugh's "The Philosophers of Greece" situates Aristotle's philosophy within the broader context of Greek thought. John M. Cooper's "Reason and Human Good in Aristotle" delves into the theoretical backbone of Aristotle’s moral philosophy, focusing on his theories of practical reasoning and human happiness.

Further Studies and Insights

Frederick Copleston's "A History of Philosophy: Greece and Rome" covers Aristotle's life and contributions across logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. Meanwhile, Abraham Edel's "Aristotle and His Philosophy" offers an insightful study into Aristotle's intellectual legacy.

John Ferguson's "Aristotle" assists general readers in understanding Aristotle’s life and his enduring influence, and Gerard J. Hughes' "Aristotle on Ethics" provides a refined introduction to his ethical insights. Martha Husain's "Ontology and the Art of Tragedy" explores the relationship between Aristotle’s "Poetics" and "Metaphysics," enriching the understanding of both works.

W.T. Jones' "A History of Western Philosophy: The Classical Mind" combines an historical interpretation with readings from Aristotle’s writings to offer a broad perspective on his thought. Anthony Kenny's "Aristotle on the Perfect Life" explores Aristotle's views on human nature, ethics, and politics, while Jonathan Lear’s "Aristotle and Logical Theory" examines the continued significance of Aristotle's logic.

Kenneth McLeisch's "Aristotle" provides an engaging biographical introduction, and R.G. Mulgan's "Aristotle’s Political Theory" sharpens the focus on his political ideas as they appear in "Politics." Other notable works include John Herman Randall Jr.'s survey of Aristotle’s philosophy, Timothy A. Robinson's outline of his thought, and Amélie Oksenberg Rorty’s edited volume "Essays on Aristotle’s ‘Ethics,’" which concentrates on various facets of his moral philosophy.

In "Revaluing 'Ethics': Aristotle’s Dialectical Pedagogy," Thomas W. Smith advocates for interpreting "Ethics" not merely as a moral guidebook but as a tool for developing a questioning mind. Lastly, Paul Strathern's "Aristotle in Ninety Minutes" offers a succinct and accessible overview of Aristotle's philosophy.

Each of these works contributes to a richer comprehension of Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics," illuminating the multifaceted nature of his philosophical inquiries and their enduring influence on Western thought.