Niccolò Machiavelli remains a pivotal figure in political philosophy, renowned for his astute insights into power dynamics. His works, notably The Prince and The Mandrake, explore the themes of power acquisition and morality, presenting a pragmatic approach to leadership and human desires. By examining these texts, readers gain insight into Machiavelli's perspectives on virtue, governance, and the cunning necessary to navigate political landscapes.

Machiavelli's Exile and Literary Pursuits

In a letter penned to Francesco Vettori on December 10, 1513, Niccolò Machiavelli offers a glimpse into his life during exile. Stripped of his political office, Machiavelli tended to his estate and mingled with local peasants, drawing inspiration from their interactions and the works of Italian literary giants like Dante and Petrarch. Evenings found him immersed in study, where he entered the "antique courts of the ancients," engaging in metaphorical dialogues that would inform his writings. This period of intellectual gestation led to the creation of his seminal work, The Prince.

Defining Virtue and State in The Prince

A critical element of The Prince is Machiavelli's nuanced use of language. He redefines the term virtu, not as moral virtue, but as an expression of power and the capability to command. Similarly, lo stato, or the state, is understood as a dominion where power is exercised, drawing parallels to the modern concept of a political state. In this way, Machiavelli sets the stage for a pragmatic discourse on the acquisition and maintenance of power.

Strategies for Power: War and Morality

The Prince, a political treatise first published in 1532, explores how rulers can secure and consolidate power. Machiavelli, who began writing the treatise shortly after his dismissal from political office, initially titled the work "On Principalities." In the first eleven chapters, he categorizes different types of principalities and offers historical examples and strategies for governance. Significantly, he asserts that the conquest of hereditary principalities requires either residing in the territory or establishing colonies, citing the Romans as exemplars of this strategy. He argues that acquiring new territories is a natural inclination, emphasizing the importance of military readiness to fend off threats and unite subjects.

Machiavelli extols figures like Alexander the Great for their adept governance over conquered lands, distinguishing between subjects accustomed to despotism and those with a history of self-governance. The latter, he warns, are more challenging to rule unless thoroughly subdued. Through chapters six to eight, Machiavelli praises conquerors who achieved their goals through their own cunning and arms, rather than divine favor, advocating that "all armed prophets conquer and unarmed ones are ruined." He controversially commends leaders like King Agothocles of Sicily for their "virtue," achieved through treachery.

The Role of Military Forces

Chapters twelve through fourteen delve into the management of enemies through military power, underscoring its necessity over legal measures. Machiavelli differentiates between various military forces: personal, mercenary, and auxiliary. Mercenary forces, he argues, are unreliable, emphasizing the dangers of dependency on external military strength. Citing Cesare Borgia’s initial use and subsequent rejection of mercenary forces, Machiavelli stresses the importance of a leader's own military. He poignantly concludes in chapter fourteen that a ruler should prioritize the art of war above all else.

The Appearance of Virtue

In chapters fifteen through twenty-three, Machiavelli examines the conduct of rulers, advocating the strategic appearance of virtue rather than its genuine practice. He suggests that while a ruler might benefit from the reputation of generosity, true generosity could erode resources. Thus, leaders could instead exercise "pious cruelty"—using religion to secure political support—while avoiding hatred. Machiavelli's infamous suggestion follows: if a ruler must choose between being loved...