two royal families, there is great rivalry between Brunhild and Kriemhild. They vie with each other by overdressing their attendants and then argue as to the place each should have in the royal procession. Finally, Kriemhild takes revenge when she tells Brunhild the true story of Brunhild’s wedding night. Accusing Brunhild of acting the part of a harlot, she says that Brunhild slept first with Siegfried, then with her husband, Gunther. For proof, she displays Brunhild’s ring and girdle, both of which Siegfried won from Brunhild the night he overcame her. Brunhild, furious and desirous of revenge, seeks out her husband and confronts him with the story of her humiliation and betrayal. Gunther and Siegfried soon settle to their own satisfaction the quarrel between the two women, but Hagen, the crafty one, stirs up trouble among Gunther’s brothers with his claim that Siegfried stained the honor of their house. They plot to trap Siegfried and to destroy him. When it is reported that the Saxons are to attack Gunther’s knights, Kriemhild unwittingly reveals Siegfried’s one vulnerable spot. While bathing in the dragon’s blood, he failed to protect a portion of his body the size of a linden leaf because a leaf fell down between his shoulders. The villainous Hagen asks her to sew a token on the spot so that he can protect Siegfried during the fighting. Hagen sends men to say that the Saxons gave up the attack. Then, the fear of battle over, Gunther rides out to hunt with all of his knights. There, deep in the forest, as Siegfried is bending over a spring to drink, he is struck in the fatal spot by an arrow from Hagen’s bow. Before he dies, Siegfried curses the Burgundians and their tribe forever. Indifferent to the dying man’s curse, Hagen carries home the body of the dead hero.

He places Siegfried’s body in the path where Kriemhild will see it on her way to church, but a chamberlain discovers the body before she passes. Kriemhild knows instinctively whose hand did the deed. A thousand knights headed by Siegmund, his father, mourn the dead hero, and everyone claims vengeance. The widow gives vast sums of money to the poor in honor of Siegfried. When Siegmund prepares to leave for Niderland, he asks Kriemhild to go with him. She refuses but allows him to take Siegfried’s son with him. She is determined to stay with the Burgundians. Queen Brunhild, however, offers no compassion. The Nibelungen hoard is given to Kriemhild because it is her wedding gift. By order of Hagen, who plans to get possession of the treasure, all of it is dropped to the bottom of the Rhine. In the years that follow Kriemhild remains in mourning for Siegfried.

At last the mighty Etzel, king of the Huns, seeks to marry Kriemhild. After a long courtship he wins Kriemhild and takes her to his land to be his wife. Etzel is rich and strong, and after her long years of mourning, Kriemhild again occupies a position of power and honor. Now she begins to consider how she might avenge herself for the death of Siegfried. Hoping to get Hagen in her power, she sends a messenger to her brothers, saying that she longs to see all of them again. When they receive her message, the brothers and Hagen set out. Old Queen Uta tells them that in a dream she saw a vision of dire foreboding, but the Burgundians refuse to heed her warning. Hagen receives a token from some mermaids, who say none of the knights will return from Hunland. He disregards the prediction. Then a quarrel breaks out among the Burgundians, and Dankwart slays Gelfrat. Three evil omens now attend the coming journey, but still the brothers refuse to turn back. At last the Burgundians come to Etzel’s castle. Gunther and his brothers are put into separate apartments. Dankwart and Hagen are sent to other quarters. Warned by Sir Dietrich that Kriemhild still plots vengeance for Siegfried’s death, Hagen urges them all to take precautions. When Kriemhild asks them to give her their weapons, Hagen replies that it could not be. The Burgundians decide to post a guard to prevent a surprise attack while they sleep. The court goes to mass. At the services the Huns are displeased to see that Gunther and his party jostle Queen Kriemhild.

In honor of the Burgundians, a great tournament is held for all the knights. The feeling between the Burgundians and the Huns is so bad that King Etzel is forced to intervene in order to keep the peace. To appease the brothers, Etzel gives them Kriemhild’s small son, Ortlieb, as a hostage. Sir Bloedel, however, presses into Dankwart’s quarters demanding justice for Kriemhild. In a few minutes he arouses the anger of Dankwart, who rises from his table and kills Bloedel. For this deed the angered Huns killed Dankwart’s retainers. Dankwart, at bay, runs to Hagen for help. Hagen, knowing that he will not live to seek his vengeance on Kriemhild later, slaughters the little prince, Ortlieb. Then a mighty battle follows in which Hagen and Gunther manage to kill most of their adversaries.

Kriemhild now urges her heroes to kill Hagen. The first to take up the challenge is Iring. After he wounds Hagen, he rushes back to Kriemhild for praise. Hagen recovers quickly and seeks Iring to kill him. The battle continues, and many knights from both sides fall in the bloody combat. Outnumbered, the Burgundians fall one by one. Kriemhild herself slays Hagen, the last of the Burgundians to survive. He dies without revealing the location of the treasure.

King Etzel grieves to see so many brave knights killed. At a sign from him, Hildebrand, one of his retainers, lifts his sword and ends the life of Kriemhild as well. In this way dies the secret of the new hiding place of the Nibelungen treasure.

*Castle of Worms

*Castle of Worms. Castle by the Rhine River in northern France’s historic Burgundy region. It is the home of Kriemhild and her family, who face much hardship and death as a result of Kriemhild’s great love for Siegfried. This place represents the unmarred beauty and happiness of a young woman, while it also symbolizes her maturity and the bitterness that follows betrayal, which eventually leads to death and destruction—her own and those of innumerable others.

*Netherlands

*Netherlands. Homeland of Siegfried that signifies his power, as well as his own evanescent nature. In certain instances within the poem, Norway and Nibelungenland seem to be synonymous with the Netherlands, which is analogous to the relationship that Siegfried has with his own people and those of other nations—that of a known origin, but of an indistinct nature.

Isenstein

Isenstein. Location of Brunhild’s court. For a long while, this place was thought to be in Iceland because it is described as having been along the coast. However, that is no longer considered the case. Brunhild may also correspond with her place of origin, for just as she has enormous power that is eventually taken from her by an act of betrayal, so is her court.

Nibelungenland

Nibelungenland. Mythical setting in which Siegfried is believed to have won his cloak of invisibility and the gold hoard. It represents that which is inscrutable for humans, unknown power and wealth, and those possessions to which everyone in this epic aspires but never attains.

*Hungary

*Hungary. Homeland of King Etzel, the heathen. Although Etzel himself is not portrayed in a negative light, Hungary is associated with the dark deeds of Kriemhild, who remains there until her death for the sole purpose of revenge.

Socio-historical Context of the Nibelungenlied
Although the version of the Nibelungenlied familiar to twentieth-century readers was written around 1200, it loosely references historical and legendary events that occurred or were first recorded several centuries earlier. The Huns (depicted as Etzel's people in the Nibelungenlied) were originally a nomadic tribe from Asia. They invaded Europe around 360 and eventually established the majority of their kingdom in what is now Hungary. Attila (referred to as Etzel in the Nibelungenlied) became King of the Huns in 433. In Latin legends, he was nicknamed the "Scourge of the Gods" due to his cruelty, an image that has largely endured. However, in Germanic legends, he is depicted as hospitable and just.

The kingdom at Worms is believed to have been established in 406 by the Burgundians, a Germanic people. They were defeated by the Huns under Attila in a battle that resulted in the death of the entire Burgundian royal family. Following this, the surviving Burgundians settled in the region of France known today as Burgundy. It was after this period that the names of Gunther, Giselher, and Gernot appear in their historical records.

The character of Dietrich of Verona is inspired by the historical figure Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths from around 475. As the ruler of Italy from 493, he implemented legal, social, and economic reforms. He appears in the Nibelungenlied as Dietrich of Verona due to his historical ties to Italy.

Legends about the mythical dragon-slayer Siegfried became intertwined with the story of the Burgundian kingdom's downfall at the hands of the Huns. Similar tales of a dragon-slaying knight named Siegfried also appear in Icelandic epic tales (known as "Eddas"). These northern versions of the story differ somewhat from the Germanic versions, although they are believed to have originated from common sources. These source stories were popular throughout regions that are now Iceland, Denmark, Norway, and England.

Understanding the motivations of the characters in the Nibelungenlied requires an understanding of the bonds of feudalism, family, and friendship. In Germanic culture of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, these bonds were of paramount importance. The loyalty of a vassal to a lord, the bonds of blood kinship and friendship, and the bond between husband and wife are all crucial; many conflicts in the text arise when a character is torn between these conflicting obligations. For example, Hagen feels honor-bound as a vassal of Brunhild's husband Gunther to defend Brunhild's honor by killing Siegfried. However, since Siegfried is Kriemhild's husband and Kriemhild is Gunther's sister, he is also violating an implied bond not to harm her. Kriemhild, in turn, betrays her husband Etzel by using him as a pawn to lure the Burgundians to their slaughter in Hungary. Rudiger is torn between his sworn loyalty to his lord, Etzel, and his bond of friendship and kinship with the Burgundians.

Such brutal actions are seldom mitigated by the occasional reminders that these events unfold within a Christian culture, governed by the principles of Christian conduct. Christianity began to spread across Europe during the early Middle Ages. The historical figure Dietrich (Theodoric) was a Christian, though he adhered to a different, heretical branch of Christianity known as Arianism. Attila remained a pagan, and it is unclear how quickly the Burgundian tribes converted. The prominence of Christian culture in the Nibelungenlied was likely the creation of the anonymous author, who wrote in the twelfth or thirteenth century when western Europe was predominantly Christian.

These two worlds—pagan and Christian—clash in the Nibelungenlied when Kriemhild, a Christian, marries Etzel, a pagan. However, Christian beliefs in the story receive only minimal attention. There is less conflict between pagan and Christian beliefs than there is within the Burgundian Christian culture, where the contradictory demands of feudal obligations and personal interests create tension.

Nibelungenlied as Epic
The Nibelungenlied is rooted in two significant literary traditions: the epic and the romance. As an epic, it highlights the exploits and triumphs of various noble and admirable characters. It incorporates elements from history, mythology, and legend, with the narrative primarily driven by action. Additionally, the Nibelungenlied integrates aspects of literary romance, such as knightly quests, chivalry, and complex love relationships that evolve over time. The romance genre typically focuses on plot or character development, which is evident in the romantic segments of the Nibelungenlied. This work is often considered one of the earliest examples of a new, hybrid literary form that combines elements of both epic and romance. Some scholars suggest that the Nibelungenlied also draws from a story type associated with the romance genre known as the "bridal-quest." This narrative model includes several typical episodes: the report of a distant and eligible princess; a suitor inspired to woo and marry her; her initial resistance; usually, a series of tasks the suitor must complete; and ultimately, a victorious bridal journey culminating in a wedding. These events, familiar to many through nineteenth-century folk and fairy tales, are reflected in the relationships between Siegfried and Kriemhild, as well as Gunther and Brunhild.

Point of View
The Nibelungenlied is narrated from the perspective of an omniscient, or "all-knowing," narrator. This narrator is aware of all the unfolding events and those yet to come. To present a cohesive story, the narrative is delivered with minimal personal commentary and uses repetitive or stock phrases. For instance, the character Volker is frequently referred to as "the valiant minstrel," reminding readers of both his bravery and his role as a musician. Since the basic Nibelungenlied story was widely known long before it was documented, the narrator assumes the audience is familiar with the plot. This approach is typical of medieval literature and epic tales, which relied on shared cultural knowledge.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is a literary technique where future events in the story are hinted at in advance. This technique is prevalent throughout the Nibelungenlied. Examples include Uote's interpretations of her own dream and her daughter's dream, the prophecy given to Hagen by the water-faeries, and the narrator's frequent hints that doom awaits certain characters or that dire consequences will follow recent events. This type of foreshadowing adds structural unity and intrigue to the narrative. It maintains a consistent tragic tone while keeping the reader engaged, not by wondering what will happen next, but by anticipating how the inevitable tragic events will unfold.

Structure
The Nibelungenlied features a dual structure. The narrative is split into two main sections: the first details Kriemhild's marriage to Siegfried and his subsequent death (Chapters 1-19); the second follows Kriemhild's marriage to Etzel and her pursuit of vengeance for Siegfried's death (Chapters 20-39). The second section builds upon and resolves the events of the first, serving as a form of structural foreshadowing. Additionally, there is an internal symmetry within these two parts. For example, both sections commence with a bride-quest and a marriage and conclude with death. Reflecting the literary technique of expanding on earlier events, the first part ends with the death of a single character, whereas the second part concludes with significant loss of life due to a major conflict between groups. Themes such as gift-giving, invitations, arrivals, departures, and battles are present in both parts. Moreover, the narrative escalates from the mock battles and war games of the first part to the deadly serious combat that characterizes the epic's conclusion.

Middle Ages: Throughout the Middle Ages, laws and punishments differed significantly between countries, and sometimes even between cities. Justice and the penalties imposed often "fit" the crime in very literal ways.

Late twentieth century: Modern legal systems have moved away from "eye for an eye" retributive justice. Most nations' legal systems claim to be impartial and fair, with a strong focus on rehabilitation.

Middle Ages: Vengeance—retaliation for a wrong done—was considered a fair form of justice.

Late twentieth century: Justice is generally viewed as punishing the guilty while protecting the innocent. Revenge is not intended to be a motivation for seeking justice.

Middle Ages: Kingship was inherited. Rulers during the Middle Ages wielded nearly unlimited power and authority over their subjects.

Late twentieth century: Most monarchs serve mainly as ceremonial figureheads, living under the same laws and enjoying the same rights as other citizens.

Die Nibelungen was transformed into a two-part black-and-white silent film in 1924. This German production was directed by Fritz Lang. The film is currently accessible on Laser Disc (Disc Format CLV) and 16mm film. The two parts are titled "Siegfried's Death" and "Kriemhild's Revenge." The movie expands on the stories of Siegfried's early years and remains quite loyal to the narrative of the Nibelungenlied.

German composer Richard Wagner adapted the Nibelung saga into a series of four operas collectively known as Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelungs). Individually, the operas are: Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold), Die Walkure (The Valkyries), Siegfried, and Gotterdamerung (The Twilight of the Gods). Wagner drew inspiration from both the Nibelungenlied and the Norse Eddas to craft his plots. Numerous versions of these operas are available on CD, video, and Laser Disc.

J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings is a fantasy epic that spotlights the early feats of Siegfried the dragon-slayer. A 1978 animated adaptation of this tale, directed by Ralph Bakshi and produced by Republic Pictures, is available on video.

Sources for Further Study
Andersson, Theodore M. A Preface to the Nibelungenlied. Stanford University Press, 1987. Andersson examines the Nibelungenlied within the evolution of epic poetry, emphasizing the emergence of the romance genre and how the Nibelungenlied incorporates elements of both genres. He includes comprehensive bibliographic entries for each chapter, addressing the sources, literary context, and critical history of the Nibelungenlied.

Boggs, Roy A. "The Popular Image of Brunhilde," in The Roles and Images of Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, edited by Douglas Radchff-Umstead. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975. Boggs explores the various portrayals of Brunhilde's character in the Nibelungenlied and other works. She is predominantly seen as the "noble but betrayed queen of Iceland," although her character assumes different roles in Scandinavian epics like the Volsunga Saga and the Poetic Edda.

Gentry, Francis G. "Hagen and the Problem of Individuality in the Nibelungenlied." Monatshefte, Vol 68, 1976, pp. 5-12. Gentry seeks to uncover the perspectives of the anonymous author of the Nibelungenlied regarding the legal and moral expectations of feudal society imposed on the characters.

Hatto, A. T. Foreword to The Nibelungenlied, translated by A. T. Hatto, Penguin Books, 1969. This brief introduction places the work within the context of global epic literature. This edition also contains "An Introduction to a Second Reading," "A Note on the Translation," and appendices featuring essays on "The Status of the Poet," "The Manuscript Tradition, Bishop Wolfger of Passau, and the Homeland of the Last Poet," "The Date of the Poem," "The Genesis of the Poem," "The Geography of the Poem," and "A Glossary of the Characters' Names."

Haymes, Edward R. The Nibelungenlied: History and Interpretation. University of Illinois Press, 1986. Haymes discusses the relevance of medieval literature to contemporary audiences, as well as the origins of oral and written culture in the Middle Ages. He addresses the structural and thematic issues present in the Nibelungenlied.

Haymes, Edward R. and Susann T. Samples. Heroic Legends of the North: An Introduction to the Nibelung and Dietrich Cycles. Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996. Haymes and Samples provide an extensive historical overview of the sources that influenced the Nibelungenlied. They explore the history and development of heroic poetry and epics, as well as the legends of the Germanic peoples. This text also covers the transition of heroic legends from oral tradition to written literature.

Mowatt, D. G., in an introduction to The Nibelungenlied, translated by D. G. Mowatt, Dent, 1962, pp. v-x. Mowatt examines the Nibelungenlied's significance as a historic national epic of Germany.

Mueller, Werner A. The Nibelungenlied Today: Its Substance, Essence, and Significance. AMS Press Inc., 1966. Mueller explores key themes in the Nibelungenlied, such as honor, loyalty, gentility, and the importance of family, social relationships, and oaths.

Thelen, Lynn D. "The Internal Source and Function of King Gunther's Bridal Quest." Monatshefte, Vol 76 (1984): pp. 143-155. Thelen argues that Gunther's pursuit of Brunhild poses significant issues within the narrative of the Nibelungenlied, casting doubt on Gunther's capabilities as a leader. She contends that the bridal games, in which Siegfried participates on Gunther's behalf, serve multiple purposes: they entertain the reader, further develop Gunther's character, and "underscore the theme of real versus claimed power."