pageantry, the theater's allure, and the monarchy's drama, these distractions could not bridge the growing divide between the wealthy and the impoverished. They also could not quell the rising public outcry against the slave trade, a business that significantly contributed to England’s economic dominance. These tensions and others would ultimately steer literature toward Romanticism.

Allegory

An allegory is a storytelling method where characters or events symbolize broader messages or lessons. It is often employed to impart moral, ethical, or religious teachings, but it can also serve political objectives. For the neoclassical writers, this political aspect was frequently emphasized, often alongside satire.

Jonathan Swift’s critique of English politics was so scathing that he chose to release his work, Gulliver’s Travels, anonymously. While the story appears to be simple fiction on the surface, it actually reflects the intense political conflicts between the two dominant political parties of the early 1700s—the Tories and the Whigs.

Swift uses certain characters to satirize figures familiar to those aware of British politics. For instance, the Lilliputian emperor, portrayed as a tyrant and corrupt, is a clear representation of George I, King of England (1714-1727). Similarly, the Lilliputian Empress symbolizes Queen Anne, who, displeased with Swift’s earlier satires, obstructed his progress within the Church of England. The Low-Heels and High-Heels factions in Lilliput mirror the Tories and the Whigs.

Didactic

This term defines literary works designed to impart moral, religious, political, or practical lessons. It typically refers to literature where the message is prioritized over the form. Many neoclassical writers aimed to educate, as they were often moralists and critics of English politics, sharing a common goal of expressing their viewpoints. In Robinson Crusoe, Defoe’s lesson for young readers is that perseverance yields rewards.

Robinson Crusoe was regarded as a highly valuable children's book during its era. Many saw Crusoe as an exemplary role model for children. Defoe’s character is steady, intelligent, spirited, independent, and industrious, displaying all these traits while facing significant challenges and ultimately surviving. Children have also praised Defoe's work for its relatability, as they connect with Crusoe’s perseverance and enjoy his discoveries and survival strategies.

Blank Verse

Blank verse refers to unrhymed poetry, specifically unrhymed iambic pentameter, which consists of lines with five two-syllable feet, where the first syllable is stressed, and the second is unstressed. Neoclassical poets, like their post-Renaissance counterparts, often used blank verse, valuing its adaptability and dignified tone.

William Shakespeare composed most of his plays in blank verse, inspiring followers like John Dryden. Known for his expertise in various rhyme schemes, Dryden included blank verse in his body of work, with All for Love (1678) being a notable example.

Mock Epic

This literary form was a popular and ingenious method of satire, used to humorously address a variety of contemporary issues. Many neoclassical authors—such as Pope, Swift, Dryden, Defoe, Richardson, and Johnson—crafted satires targeting what they perceived as social and political excesses of their era.

To begin, consider the traditional epic—a lengthy narrative poem centered around a hero of great national, historical, or legendary significance. The setting is expansive, often featuring some form of cosmic intervention by gods, angels, or demons. These works are typically composed in a classical style, using intricate metaphors and allusions to emphasize the significance of their subject.

The mock epic mimics many of these classical elements—the narrative is lengthy, employing elevated language, metaphors, and allusions. However, the subject matter is intentionally less heroic, thereby mocking real-life overreactions to trivial events.

Pope’s “Rape of the Lock” serves as an excellent example of a mock epic. As Frances Mayhew Rippy notes in “The Rape of the Lock: Overview,” Pope’s work examines modern issues, finding them far less heroic than those of the classical era. Rippy further points out that “Epic battles have become card games and snuff-throwing,” and the “genealogy of weapons has become the history of Belinda’s ornamental hairpin.” Essentially, the work successfully satirizes the diminished sense of what truly matters.

The neoclassical era was defined by specific historical milestones. Most scholars concur that this movement commenced with the Stuarts' return to the English throne in 1660 and concluded with the release of "Lyrical Ballads" by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1798. This era encompasses the Restoration Age (1660–1700), the Augustan Age (1700–1750), and the Age of Johnson (1750–1798).

The Restoration Age (1660–1700)

At the start of the Restoration, England experienced a significant transformation, strongly opposing Puritanism. This era witnessed a revival of scientific thought and inquiry. It was during this time, influenced by French culture, that Neoclassicism began to emerge.

In the Restoration Age, the Heroic couplet, a rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter, became the dominant verse form. Poetry was often didactic or satirical, aiming to impart a moral, religious, political, or practical lesson or to mock and critique contemporary life. The ode, a long, lyrical, rhyming poem that praises an object, person, or quality in an elevated style, was also popular.

Prose evolved into a more "modern" style, exemplified by writers such as Bunyan, Dryden, and Milton. Noteworthy literary works of this period include Milton's Paradise Lost and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, while Dryden's writings signaled a shift towards the Augustan Age. Locke's politically oriented writings reflected the trajectory of English thought during this time.

The Restoration Age also saw the reopening of theaters. Playwrights William Wycherly and William Congreve brought contemporary dramas to the stage. The comedy of manners and heroic drama emerged as distinct genres.

The Augustan Age (1700–1750)

During the Augustan Age, classical ideals of common sense and reason were prioritized over creativity driven by emotion and imagination. Literature from this period is typically realistic, satirical, and moral, often influenced by the politics of the time. Authors like James Thomson continued to explore themes related to nature and science in their writings.

Poetry became more precise and concise, as seen in the works of Pope, with the mock epic and verse essay becoming popular literary forms. Defoe's journals, essay collections, and periodicals like the Spectator shaped English prose style. Swift's satires gained popularity, along with early novels by Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding. The theater shifted from moralistic themes to sentimental comedy, with classical and domestic tragedies also prevailing on stage.

The Age of Johnson (1750–1798)

This era is aptly named after Samuel Johnson, whose prose and critical works played a significant role in bringing the neoclassical tradition to a close. The Age of Johnson marked a shift from classical study and imitation to an appreciation for folk literature and popular ballads, a transition evident in Johnson's own writings.

During this period, the novel evolved steadily, with Sterne and Mackenzie developing what became known as the novel of sensibility. The Gothic novel emerged through the efforts of authors like Ann Radcliffe and Horace Walpole. Writers such as Henry Brooke and William Godwin crafted novels rich in philosophical and political commentary. Shakespeare's works were exceedingly popular, and the sentimental comedy and comedy of manners continued to be widely utilized. Additionally, forms like burlesque, pantomime, and melodrama gained prominence.

This era saw a growing interest in human freedom, fueled by the American and French revolutions. There was an increased appreciation for the outdoors, a celebration of rural life, and a broadening of intellectual pursuits. The period also witnessed the rise of various religious movements, including Methodism. It was within this environment that the neoclassical tradition ultimately faded, paving the way for the rise of English Romanticism.

1600s–1700s: Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector is toppled, leading to the reinstatement of the monarchy. After two decades without a king, Charles II ascends the throne of England.

Today: Tony Blair serves as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, while Queen Elizabeth II holds the ceremonial role of head of state within a parliamentary democracy.

1600s–1700s: The renowned eighteenth-century publication, The Spectator, is established by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele.

Today: The internet revolutionizes access to information, allowing millions of homes to connect to an almost infinite array of newspapers, magazines, and periodicals with a simple click.

1600s–1700s: The emergence of English theater reshapes societal norms as people from all walks of life begin to attend plays and performances.

Today: The introduction of DVDs and advanced home entertainment systems alters viewing habits, with many opting to watch movies at home rather than going to the cinema.

1600–1700s: The revival of the English theater brings different social classes together, with fashion becoming a focal point. Middle and upper-middle-class theatergoers start emulating the royal family's style and attire.

Today: Pop music icons like Britney Spears influence fashion trends among modern teenagers.

Of Dramatick Poesie: An Essay

Of Dramatick Poesie: An Essay (1668) showcased John Dryden’s critique of the prevailing trends in seventeenth-century English theater and is regarded as one of his finest prose compositions. The essay's importance stems from its argument about the evolution of English theater, which became a significant influence.

In Of Dramatick Poesie: An Essay, four characters—Crites, Eugenius, Lisideius, and Neander—drift along the Thames River amidst a naval conflict between the English and Dutch. Dryden employs a dialogue format to convey his ideas. By using multiple characters, Dryden could explore different facets of his argument from several viewpoints without overtly endorsing any single perspective. He articulates clear stances on topics such as the virtues of English theater compared to French theater, as well as other dramatic conventions, including a defense of verse in drama. Dryden favored this method of argumentation, a hallmark of much of his work, as it enabled him to examine various viewpoints while ultimately supporting his own.

The essay’s characters engage in a discussion about classical conventions, particularly as adopted by the French, and the importance of the unities in English drama. The unities are strict guidelines for dramatic structure created by Italian and French writers during the Renaissance, loosely based on Aristotle's dramatic principles. Presented in dialogue form, another classical technique, the work is both intellectually stimulating and entertaining.

Gulliver’s Travels

Jonathan Swift achieved immediate success with the release of his politically charged satire Gulliver’s Travels. The book contained all the elements of an enticing read—mystery, along with political, social, and sexual intrigue. However, due to its controversial content, Swift chose to publish the book anonymously in 1727.

Lemuel Gulliver is the protagonist of Gulliver’s Travels, and the narrative chronicles his adventures in Lilliput, Brobdingnag, Laputa, and Houyhnhnms. In Lilliput, Gulliver towers over the inhabitants, who are merely six inches tall, and they call him “Man-Mountain.” Gulliver’s size becomes a political matter, and as he becomes more entangled with Lilliput, he is pressured to assist the Lilliputians in their conflict with Blefuscu.

The story was largely allegorical, commenting on contemporary British politics. It didn’t take long for readers to realize that Swift was critiquing England rather than fictional lands like Lilliput, nor for them to deduce that Jonathan Swift was the author. Swift was not only politically active but also a well-known journalist with a distinctive style.

Robinson Crusoe

The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner, more commonly known as Robinson Crusoe, is a classic work published in London by William Taylor on April 25, 1719. This novel draws inspiration from the real-life experiences of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish sailor who was stranded alone on the island of Yernandez in the South Pacific. Many consider it one of the earliest English novels.

Robinson Crusoe turns away from his family's mercantile pursuits to embrace a seafaring life. Through a series of adventures, including encounters with pirates and a daring escape from slavery, Crusoe eventually finds himself caught in a hurricane. This storm leaves his ship destroyed, and he spends the next twenty-eight years marooned on a Caribbean island, struggling to survive in solitude.

Robinson Crusoe exhibits many elements of a traditional epic, featuring a distinct hero, challenging journeys, separation from home, and minor conflicts. Defoe imbues Crusoe with commendable traits such as practicality, intelligence, and a balanced sense of spirituality, qualities appreciated both at the time of publication and today. The book was even used for educational purposes. Known for its clarity and cohesion, the novel avoids unnecessary complexity and maintains a unified plot and character development, traits valued by ancient literary standards.

The Rape of the Lock

When considering the works of Alexander Pope, The Rape of the Lock often comes to mind first. This association is well-deserved, as the poem is celebrated as one of the finest examples of a mock epic from the neoclassical era. Pope's work is also noted for its use of heroic couplets and stands as a prime example of eighteenth-century satire. Published in 1712, Pope wrote this piece at the young age of twenty-three.

The poem was crafted to ease tensions between two prominent families after Lord Petre cut a lock of Arabella Fermor’s hair. In Pope's rendition, Belinda (representing Arabella Fermor) encounters the Baron (representing Lord Petre) and others at Hampton Court Palace. During a social gathering over coffee and tea, the Baron snips the cherished lock, prompting a verbal assault from the women who witnessed the act. Belinda retaliates by throwing snuff in his face and threatening him with a hairpin. At this juncture, the narrator offers words of comfort to the victim and concludes by suggesting that, while the lock is lost and irretrievable, it will be preserved on the moon—a popular belief of the time regarding lost items—and may endure even longer than Belinda herself.

In keeping with the genre's tradition, the work softens the real-life events it draws from by infusing them with satire or humor. Pope pays homage to this minor tragedy using a classical style, thereby diminishing the gravity of Arabella’s experience. This approach highlights how the trivialities of modern life pale in comparison to the epic themes classicists typically reserved for this genre.

London

This piece is an imitation, a popular poetic style of the time employed by Samuel Johnson. London serves as a translation of Satura III by Juvenal, a renowned satirical poet from ancient Rome. The work explores urban life in London and holds particular importance as it marks Johnson's first independent creation and publication, separate from the magazine he was affiliated with in 1738.

The satire initially addresses the challenges of earning an honest living in the city before shifting to the perils of urban existence. However, Johnson did not adhere strictly to the original text. Instead, he adapted it to incorporate his portrayal of rural life as a viable option for city residents. This focus on country life reflects the era's literary trend, which was concerned with nature and pastoral living. Johnson omitted many of Juvenal’s descriptions of urban decay and poverty, along with related nuisances such as noise, crowds, traffic, and crime. He also expanded Satura III by including numerous contemporary political references in the introduction. Following the common practice of his time, Johnson used his work as a platform for critique, notably targeting Spanish attempts to undermine British trade, among other issues.

Gulliver’s Travels was adapted into a television miniseries by Hallmark Home Entertainment, premiering in 2000. This version retains the original work's satire and humor.

Robinson Crusoe has been brought to the big screen multiple times, with the latest adaptation released in 1996 featuring Pierce Brosnan in the lead role.

Sources

Bond, Donald F., “The Neo-Classical Psychology of the Imagination,” in ELH, Vol. 4, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1937.

Greene, Donald, “What Indeed Was Neoclassicism? A Reply to James William Johnson’s ‘What was Neoclassicism?,’” in the Journal of British Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, November 1970, pp. 69–79.

Johnson, James William, “What was Neoclassicism?” in the Journal of British Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1, November 1969, pp. 49–70.

Jones, Thora Burnley, Neo-Classical Dramatic Criticism, 1560–1770, Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 124–43.

Rippy, Frances Mayhew, “The Rape of the Lock: Overview,” in Reference Guide to English Literature, edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, St. James Press, 1991.

Walsh, Marcus, “Johnson, Samuel,” in Reference Guide to English Literature, edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, St. James Press, 1991.

Walter, Scott, “Daniel Defoe,” in On Novelists and Fiction, edited by Ioan Williams, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968, pp. 164–83.

Further Reading

Durant, William, and Ariel Durant, The Age of Reason Begins, Simon and Schuster, 1961. The Age of Reason Begins serves as a valuable historical resource for anyone seeking to understand the political landscape that preceded the neoclassical era. It explores a time in history marked by religious conflict and scientific advancement, spanning from 1558 to 1650.

Finley, M. I., The Ancient Greeks, Penguin Books, 1991. The Ancient Greeks delves into the Greek classical era and offers insights into Greek literature, science, philosophy, architecture, sculpture, and painting.

Highet, Gilbert, The Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press, 1949. The Classical Tradition provides an in-depth explanation of the significant events and movements that characterized Classicism. The author not only highlights key classical movements but also examines the influence of classical works on more modern writers.