said to be more pessimistic or realistic. She sees the inevitability of change and emphasizes the need to adapt to it if Indian people are to survive the aftereffects of colonialism. Women protagonists, traditionally perceived as bastions of culture and tradition, are forced into the vortex of modernization; they must adapt or perish. By showing these concrete realities, Markandaya deconstructs the idea of the tradition-bound Hindu woman. Being the virtuous wife and mother is simply not enough in the modern Indian context; women must orchestrate conceptual and philosophical changes in their lives.

Her examination of socioeconomic structures of power have led Markandaya to reveal “gender” as a set of social arrangements, rather than a biological category: Thus, in Nectar in a Sieve, Ira, Rukmani, and Kunthi all suffer concrete social and economic oppressions rather than natural or bodily afflictions connected with their feminine natures. As a commentator on rural and lower-class women, Markandaya is well received in national and international literary circles. She does not enjoy the academic recognition given to Desai, the other major Indian woman writer, but her works are consistently taught in school curricula in India, England, and the United States. In her own way, she has added to the female tradition in the Anglo-Indian novel by feminizing the points of view and the realities depicted within this tradition.

India's Independence from Britain
The British had ruled India since the early 19th century, but on August 15, 1947, the Indian Independence Act granted sovereignty to both India and Pakistan. Hindus primarily resided in India, while Muslims mainly lived in Pakistan, although individuals were free to travel between the two nations.

Following the dissolution of British governmental power, India's Constituent Assembly opted for a republican constitutional government, closely mirroring the American system. They drafted a constitution, which became the longest written constitution in the world. One of its significant provisions was the abolition of the ancient caste system, which had long disadvantaged millions of Indians. Rajendra Prasad, a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and an experienced politician, became the first president. A cabinet was also established, with Jawaharlal Nehru serving as the prime minister.

The initial years of India's new government were both challenging and transformative. India chose to remain neutral during the Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. This stance made it difficult to obtain famine relief from the United States when a series of natural disasters, including droughts, earthquakes, and floods, struck India in 1950. Eventually, in 1951, the American government approved famine relief under terms acceptable to India's political leaders. Shortly thereafter, Nehru initiated government programs to promote birth control to address overpopulation. He also developed a five-year plan to enhance irrigation and hydroelectric projects for agriculture.

Daily Life in an Indian Village
In Indian villages, both now and during the time of the novel, it is common for extended families to live together or in close proximity. This setup requires patience and mutual respect, as conflicts over privacy, responsibilities, and resource allocation are a regular part of life. However, the close-knit nature of families discourages members from moving far away. Traditionally, women have been responsible for maintaining the home, raising children, cooking, and overseeing religious and cultural practices. Men, on the other hand, earn money to support the family and teach their sons their trades so that they can eventually take over the father's work.

In the past, married couples were expected to have children; failing to do so would result in a loss of social standing and respect. Additionally, without children, the couple's future prospects were limited. The birth of a child was a cause for celebration, but the birth of a son was particularly joyous during the time of the novel. A son would learn his father's trade and take on business responsibilities, whereas a daughter could not earn money for the family and required a dowry for marriage.

Hinduism
Hinduism is the dominant religion in India, though Islam and Christianity are also practiced. Hinduism encompasses numerous rituals and the worship of a variety of deities. Celebrations like Deepavali play a significant role in Hinduism, offering a communal aspect that complements personal practices such as meditation and prayer. In Hindu belief, the cow is considered a sacred animal, so Hindus refrain from consuming beef or handling any part of a slaughtered cow. This cultural aspect is crucial in understanding the tannery's role in the novel, as it sheds light on why many Muslims initially found employment there and partly explains Rukmani's disappointment when her sons began working at the tannery.

The novel is set in an unspecified farming village in southern India, likely in the 1950s, shortly after India's independence from Britain. Rukmani and her family reside in a one-room hut with mud walls, a thatched roof, and an earthen floor. Their home is located on swampland near a rice paddy where they can grow rice when conditions permit and occasionally plant vegetables to supplement their diet and sell at the market. Nathan and Rukmani do not own the land; they rent it and constantly struggle to pay the rent and produce enough food for their large family.

Markandaya uses the agricultural village setting to emphasize the difficult conditions faced by South Indian tenant farmers as they strive to uphold the traditional values that define their culture. Despite the devastation caused by monsoons and droughts, they endure, reluctant to abandon family traditions and ignore their caste. Markandaya contrasts the agricultural life with industrialism, juxtaposing the tranquil village with the clamor of the tannery. The tannery is depicted as a noisy, disruptive presence, and Markandaya's descriptions of large-scale industry reflect the villagers' sentiments towards the British imperialists who flooded Indian culture with Western ideologies.

Figurative Language
Throughout Nectar in a Sieve, Markandaya employs a range of literary devices to vividly portray her story. Her use of perceptive similes (a figure of speech comparing two unlike things), carefully crafted allegories, and vivid imagery helps Western readers appreciate and connect with a novel set in an unfamiliar culture and environment. These techniques also enable readers to relate to the story through the universal nature of the experiences and images depicted.

Markandaya often incorporates similes. When Rukmani reminisces about running through her garden while pregnant, she remarks, "I realized I must have looked like a water buffalo, running in such a frenzy." In a more extended simile, Rukmani observes,

Nature is like a wild animal that you have trained to work for you. So long as you are vigilant and walk warily with thought and care, so long will it give you its aid; but look away for an instant, be heedless or forgetful, and it has you by the throat.

During the Deepavali festival, Rukmani marvels at the dazzling fireworks, noting, "Now and then a rocket would tear into the sky, break and pour out its riches like precious jewels into the darkness."

In a poignant scene where Nathan takes her outside to sit, Rukmani sees her own life reflected in the landscape. At this moment, she feels grateful for her blessings but also sorrowful as her children grow up and leave home. Markandaya paints a striking image, both melancholic and beautiful:

He coaxed me out into the sunlight and we sat down together on the brown earth that was part of us, and we gazed at the paddy fields spreading rich and green before us, and they were indeed beautiful.... At one time there had been kingfishers here, flashing between the young shoots for our fish; and paddy birds; and sometimes, in the shallower reaches of the river, flamingoes, striding with ungainly precision among the water reeds, with plumage of a glory not of this earth. Now birds came no more.

Flashback
Rukmani narrates her story in the past tense, reflecting on her life as a mature woman recalling her childhood. Occasionally, she interjects thoughtful insights that stem from her reflective nature. For instance, she recounts the birth of her daughter and remembers how kind and helpful her friend Kali was. She comments,

When I recall all the help Kali gave me with my first child, I am ashamed that I ever had such thoughts [that Kali did not understand what it was like to have only a daughter, because Kali had three sons already]: my only excuse is that thoughts come of their own accord, although afterwards we can chase them away.

At the point when Rukmani is recounting her story, it is evident that she has let go of any bitterness towards her friend. Reflecting on her years as a mother later on, she notes, "How quickly children grow! They are infants—you look away a minute and in that time they have left their babyhood behind."

Nectar in a Sieve is narrated in the first person, through flashbacks, as Rukmani reflects on the truths and trials of her life. This narrative style helps readers connect with this Indian peasant woman, recognize her strengths, and appreciate her values. Rukmani's life is so different from that of some readers that her culture might be easily misunderstood. Thus, Markandaya encourages readers to delve deeply into Rukmani's character to honor the traditional Eastern lifestyle. Through a reflective voice, Markandaya allows readers to understand how people in South Indian villages perceived the changes during British rule and the struggles they faced in reconciling Eastern and Western views.

Throughout the novel, Markandaya establishes a series of contrasts to highlight the cultural conflicts. She juxtaposes Kenny's realism with Rukmani's spiritualism and Kunthi's opportunism with Rukmani's traditional values. By depicting the tannery officials as callous and dismissive of village life, she illustrates the hardships Hindus faced during this historical period and the complex issues that challenged the relationship between India and England. Life is not easily categorized into black and white but requires a delicate balance between them. Achieving this balance became essential with Britain's colonization of India; the blending of cultures necessitated a willingness to accept differences and make compromises. Kenny understands the practicality of Western society but struggles to appreciate the virtues of traditional culture. Rukmani values her cultural traditions and must learn to accept the practical aspects of Western industry.

When the tannery first arrives in her village, Rukmani fears that this industry will be the villagers' downfall, believing it will "spread like weeds in an untended garden, strangling whatever life grew in its way." However, Kenny thinks her resistance to change will be her undoing and believes her acceptance of her lower-caste status makes her weak and ignorant. He tells Rukmani that she doesn't need to suffer in silence and can break free from the bonds of poverty and hardship. "Do you think spiritual grace comes from being in want, or from suffering?" he asks her. Kenny is frustrated that she submits to nature's mercy rather than embracing the cultural changes Western industrialists aimed to bring to India. Over time, Rukmani becomes more accepting of change while staying true to her belief that contentment stems from traditional values. Markandaya uses Kenny as a symbol of Western realism and Rukmani as a symbol of Eastern spiritualism. Several commentators have suggested that Nectar in a Sieve is not just a chronicle of Rukmani's life and the changes she accepted but also a reflection of India itself and the transformations during British colonization.

Markandaya draws a parallel between the duality of Western industry and the duality of nature. Neither is purely good nor purely evil; both possess the potential to create and to destroy. Rukmani and Nathan understand that the tannery brings opportunity, but they also recognize that it undermines traditional values. They know that water revitalizes the earth after prolonged droughts, enabling life, yet it can also devastate the land and obliterate everything. Although Rukmani and Nathan lack experience with factories and the specific kind of destruction they cause, they lean on their spiritual beliefs to manage nature’s forces. Rukmani explains, "Nature is like a wild animal that you have trained to work for you. So long as you are vigilant and walk warily with thought and care, so long will it give you its aid; but look away for an instant, be heedless or forgetful, and it has you by the throat."

Markandaya presents the tannery as an embodiment of Western industry, symbolizing both creation and destruction. Is it beneficial or detrimental to society? Many Hindu peasants likely experienced similar confusion during British colonization of India. Markandaya skillfully uses an analogy by linking Ira’s loss of innocence with the tannery’s expansion, and her acceptance of Ira's fate with her acceptance of change in general. People adapt over time. Just as Ira adjusted to being unmarried and Selvam became accustomed to Sacrabani’s albino skin, Rukmani adapted to the tannery and the Western medicine Kenny introduced to the village. Reflecting on the tannery, Rukmani says, "I had seen the slow, calm beauty of our village wild in the blast from the town, and I grieved no more, so now I accepted the future … only sometimes when I was weak … I found myself rebellious, protesting, rejecting, and no longer calm." Similarly, when the British imposed their Western views on India, Hindus saw their traditions erode, initially grieving and then accepting the change. Just as Rukmani occasionally felt rebellious and restless, India, too, experienced periods of rebellion. The people saw opportunities but were reluctant to abandon the customs and values that defined their culture.

Markandaya has adeptly highlighted the conflicts that often hinder us from embracing other cultures. Getting along with people who hold different ideas and values requires a willingness to compromise and to find the middle ground between extremes. Perhaps we all need to be open to new ideas, respectful of long-standing traditions, and willing to accept change as a natural part of life. Markandaya helps us connect with Rukmani and discover that common spirit we all share. Rukmani possesses a hidden reserve of spiritual strength that helps her stay true to herself and accept the things she cannot change. This strength gives her the courage to face numerous hardships. In the novel, Rukmani reflects, "What if we gave into our troubles at every step? We would be pitiable creatures indeed to be so weak, for is not a man's spirit given to him to rise above his misfortunes?" This quote prompts us to reconsider our understanding of Eastern philosophy. Rukmani remains true to her spiritual self, which is the source of her strength. Her loyalty to Nathan and the life he offers her is what brings her contentment.

By using Rukmani as a model of the traditional wife, we are given the chance to examine the stereotypical roles of men as providers and women as nurturers. Some readers might find it difficult to grasp the belief that boys are assets to the family while girls are seen as liabilities. It may be even more challenging to comprehend Rukmani's sense of failure when she gives birth to a girl, experiences a period of infertility, and accepts that Ira's husband returned her for not bearing sons. Rukmani fully embraces the role of the subservient wife, believing she must support her husband no matter the cost. When she learns that Nathan fathered Kunthi's sons, she maintains her composure, accepts the situation, and moves forward. These are traditions that the Indian villagers accept without question, which contrast with trends in some Western countries.

Nectar in a Sieve compels us to reevaluate the nature of strength and weakness. Are men inherently strong and women weak, and does submissiveness equate to weakness? Rukmani may appear to be the submissive wife, yet she endures the death of her sons, Ira's abandonment by her husband, Ira's subsequent prostitution, and the birth of Ira's illegitimate albino son. Rukmani bravely tends to Raja's corpse. Commentators have noted that while submissiveness might seem like weakness, it often serves as a source of strength for women in traditional societies. Kenny viewed Rukmani as weak because she accepted her hardships instead of fighting them. However, through her thoughts and actions, Rukmani reveals the power of her indomitable spirit.

• 1950s: In India, girls frequently face arranged marriages at a very young age, typically starting from the age of thirteen. When they are younger, they often do not immediately live with their husbands.

  Today: While Indian women now have more freedom in choosing their partners, arranged marriages remain prevalent. Families often uphold this tradition to ensure their children marry within their social class. This practice is so ingrained in Indian culture that even Indian families residing in the United States sometimes arrange marriages for their children.

• 1950s: The diet of an Indian farming family primarily includes rice, lentils, vegetables, and some dairy products. Meat is rarely consumed due to its cost and the Hindu prohibition against eating beef.

  Today: The diet of farming families has seen little change over the years; most families consume what they cultivate. As before, the majority of food in India is produced on small farms. Meat consumption remains low due to religious beliefs.

• 1950s: In the novel, Rukmani notes that the men constructing the tannery earn two rupees per day. This amount, equivalent to roughly four cents today, was considered sufficient due to the low cost of living.

  Today: Since 1951, India has implemented a series of five-year plans aimed at revitalizing the economy. Despite periods of drought in 1979 and 1987, these plans have largely been successful. From 1965 to 1980, the economy grew at nearly five percent annually, and from 1982 to 1992, annual growth exceeded seven percent. Consequently, despite population challenges, India's economic conditions have significantly improved over the past fifty years.

• Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart (1959) portrays the Ibo clan's village life in Nigeria before and after colonization. Similar to Nectar in a Sieve, it highlights both the suffering endured and the solidarity experienced through the preservation of ancient rituals and traditions.
• Pearl S. Buck's The Good Earth (1931) depicts peasant life in 1920s China, focusing on traditional individuals dedicated to their land and family who strive to uphold their cultural heritage.
• Markandaya's other novels explore themes such as South Indian village life, the conflict between Eastern and Western values, or the intricate relationship between India and Britain.

Afzal-Khan, Fawzia. Cultural Imperialism and the Indo-English Novel. State College, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 1993.

Banerji, Niroj. Kamala Markandaya: A Critical Study. Allahabad: Kitabmahal, 1990.

Barr, Donald. New York Times Book Review (March 15, 1955): 4. A review of Nectar in a Sieve.

Bhatnager, Anil Kumar. Kamala Markandaya: A Thematic Study. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 1995.

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Further Reading
Bhatnagar, Anil K. Kamala Markandaya: A Thematic Study. Sarup & Sons, 1995. Bhatnagar's examination of Markandaya's novels explores the themes present across her varied settings and characters. He suggests these themes are influenced by her experiences in both India and Europe.

Lalita, K., and Susie J. Tharu, eds. Women Writing in India. Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1991. This two-volume anthology compiles writings from Indian women spanning from 600 B.C. to the 1990s. The editors provide critical commentary alongside this diverse collection of letters, poetry, memoirs, and fiction.

Parameswaran, Uma. Kamala Markandaya. Rawat, 2000. This comprehensive overview of Markandaya's life and career includes dedicated chapters for each of her novels.

Rao, A. V. Krishna. Kamala Markandaya: A Critical Study of Her Novels, 1954-1982. B. R. Publishing Corporation, 1997. Rao presents a critical analysis of Markandaya's novels from Nectar in a Sieve to Pleasure City.