Realistic Period in American Literature

Realism in American literature came before Naturalism, and both movements share a close relationship. They strive to depict everyday life with authenticity and include extensive detail. Realism emerged after the Civil War, a tumultuous era when Americans were in conflict over crucial issues like unity and freedom. Following the war, Americans became less idealistic and more focused on politics, science, and economics. This shift in perspective necessitated a new kind of American fiction to reflect the widespread disillusionment of the time.

The expansion of education broadened the audience for literature, while new copyright laws provided better protection for authors' works. These changes allowed more writers to pursue successful careers. Authors of fiction found eager readers for their unsentimental narratives. Within Realism, smaller movements like pragmatism and historical novels developed. Key figures of the realistic movement included Mark Twain, William Dean Howells, and Henry James. In poetry, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, and Sidney Lanier were notable writers. In drama, however, little transformation occurred, as melodrama and spectacle continued to attract audiences.

Technology and Science

The early 20th century was characterized by significant advancements in technology and science, fostering a society that valued intellect over emotions and traditional beliefs accepted without question. In 1900, Max Planck introduced a groundbreaking concept in physics by discovering the quantum nature of energy. Five years later, Albert Einstein developed the Special Theory of Relativity, followed by the general theory in 1915. These revolutionary ideas transformed scientific thinking and influenced not only sciences but also the arts, economics, and politics. By the century's turn, America was progressing toward becoming an industrialized nation. Post-Civil War, the industrial spirit that originated in the North gained new momentum, driving efforts to rebuild the nation and its economy. Significant progress was made in communication, transportation, and manufacturing. In transportation, Henry Ford founded Ford Motor Company in 1903, the same year the Wright brothers achieved the first powered flight. He launched the first automotive assembly line in 1913. The competition fostered by free market economics led to the establishment of General Motors Corporation in 1908.

In the realm of ideas, new thinkers reshaped people's understanding of the world. Charles Darwin questioned traditional religious views on human origins; Karl Marx critiqued conventional perspectives on economics and social class; and Auguste Comte introduced positivism, which asserts that the purpose of knowledge is to describe the world rather than explain it, and pioneered sociology, which focuses on observing, measuring, and predicting social phenomena.

Progress in science and technology has encouraged a broad embrace of rationalism and scientific exploration. This shift is particularly evident in the arts, notably in literature. Instead of focusing on emotions and relationships, authors began to treat their work as a tool for exploring the human mind. Their motivation shifted from offering readers an escape to a quest for uncovering truth.

Symbolism

Naturalist writers often employ symbolism to convey profound meanings through minimal words or imagery. In McTeague: A Story of San Francisco, Norris uses McTeague’s tooth-shaped sign to represent how McTeague wants to see himself and be seen by others. Despite lacking a dental license, he craves the prestige associated with the profession. The gold tooth symbolizes McTeague's ambition to amass wealth. In Sister Carrie, Dreiser uses the rocking chair as a recurring symbol during pivotal moments in Carrie's life. Her rocking signifies her isolation in the world; as she rocks, she contemplates her life’s circumstances, with the chair moving but never progressing. Another instance of naturalist symbolism is the mountain in The Red Badge of Courage , which stands as a foreboding and unyielding symbol of nature's enduring...

France

Naturalism emerged in France in the mid-19th century and continued until the early 1880s. The leading figure of French Naturalism was Zola, whose 1880 essay "Le roman experimental" played a crucial role in introducing Naturalism to the United States. Zola portrayed human life as shaped by both environment and heredity, believing that people essentially behave like animals in nature.

Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, brothers who also wrote in the naturalist style during Zola's era, contributed to this movement in France. They combined elements of Romanticism, such as the elevated status of the artist, with the realistic approach of Naturalism. Their use of scientific concepts in fiction significantly advanced the naturalist movement.

England

In English literature, the term "naturalist" is not commonly used during the American naturalist period. However, the Edwardian era (1901–14) shared some features of Naturalism, suggesting similar attitudes and reading preferences between Americans and the British before World War I. Edwardian authors were skeptical and questioned authority, religion, art, and social structures. This mirrors the naturalist approach of critically examining human behavior rather than blindly accepting traditional views. Both Naturalism and the Edwardian era were primarily led by novelists, rather than playwrights or poets.

Drama

Naturalism in drama was a minor movement that arose in the late 19th century. Playwrights adhering to this style focused on meticulous details in costumes, set design, and acting to eliminate artificiality. They aimed to dissolve the barriers between the audience and the stage, strongly opposing the melodrama that was popular at the time. Some naturalist playwrights supported social causes, choosing to educate and provoke audiences rather than offer mere entertainment. By removing artifice from theater, they hoped audiences would feel they were observing and learning from real people. Notable playwrights of this style include Henri Becque (French), Eugene Brieux (French), Gerhart Hauptmann (German-Polish), and Maxim Gorky (Russian).

Early 1900s: In 1907, Paris hosts the world's first cubist painting exhibition, led by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Cubism, reflecting the era's rationalism, is both celebrated and criticized. It takes years for Cubism to be acknowledged as a legitimate art movement and for its impact to be fully understood.

Today: Modern art encompasses a diverse array of media and styles. While art enthusiasts are generally more open to innovative and radical approaches, many artists still face challenges with society's preconceived ideas about what art should be. This ongoing tension between artists and society keeps the essential question alive: “What is art?”

Early 1900s: In 1903, Henry Ford establishes the Ford Motor Company, and a decade later, he implements an efficient assembly line. This innovation transforms transportation and manufacturing, enabling more people to own cars. Today: Car ownership is widespread, with prices ranging from economical to extravagant. Consumers are no longer restricted to Ford's original “basic black” or to American-made cars; vehicles are imported globally. Design innovations often lead to advances in manufacturing processes.

Early 1900s: Max Planck and Albert Einstein make significant advancements in physics, presenting theories that dramatically alter scientists' understanding of the universe.

Today: In 2000, three scientists receive the Nobel Prize in Physics. Zhores I. Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, and Jack S. Kilby are recognized for their contributions to the field of modern information technology.

An American Tragedy

Published in 1925, An American Tragedy is loosely inspired by a real-life event and is regarded as a prime example of American Naturalism. The novel follows Clyde Griffiths, whose pursuit of the American dream nearly drives him to commit murder. Ironically, Clyde is convicted of murder, even though his intended victim's death was accidental.

An American Tragedy is characteristic of Dreiser’s work in its critique of the American dream. Dreiser believed that faith in the American dream often resulted in disillusionment, heartache, and skepticism. The novel exemplifies Naturalism by focusing on an average middle-class man who is compelled by his circumstances to make drastic decisions. Clyde, who has always dreamed of a better life and believed he could achieve it, is on the verge of entering high society when a wealthy woman shows romantic interest in him. However, he is already engaged to a poor woman who is pregnant with his child. This predicament is devastating for Clyde as he watches his long-awaited dreams slipping away. The allure of the American dream becomes irresistible, leading him to contemplate murdering his fiancée.

When An American Tragedy was released, it garnered both popular and critical acclaim. Some critics attributed its success to the post-World War I public's interest in narratives about personal responsibility within society. After all, Clyde is found guilty of a crime he intended to commit. Critically, the novel is hailed as a masterpiece and considered Dreiser’s greatest work. Although some reviewers noted that the book is awkwardly written, with poor grammar and excessive melodrama, the majority highly recommend it.

The Call of the Wild

Initially conceived as a short story, London’s The Call of the Wild (1903) quickly became a hugely popular novel. The earnings from selling the novel's rights allowed London to buy a boat, enabling him to escape distractions and focus on writing. Widely read across the globe and studied in schools, The Call of the Wild is now recognized as an American literary classic.

The Call of the Wild tells the story of a dog named Buck, who is taken from his home in California and placed on a sled team in the Yukon. In this harsh new environment, he must assert dominance among the other dogs to survive. Eventually, he is adopted by a compassionate man named John Thornton, whose patience and kindness teach Buck to trust and love. This novel stands out among naturalist works because its protagonist is not a human, which also makes it an exemplary piece of Naturalism. The narrative exposes the laws and forces of nature through Buck’s interactions with the pack, the wilderness, and people.

McTeague: A Story of San Francisco In McTeague: A Story of San Francisco (1899), Norris challenges the notion of the independent American who controls their own destiny. Instead, Norris adopts a naturalistic perspective, depicting individuals as shaped by their surroundings, genetic predispositions, and random events. It took Norris nearly ten years to finish this novel, which is considered his most notable work. In the story, McTeague, the central character, is an unlicensed dentist lacking in both morality and intelligence. He exemplifies a naturalistic character because he is driven by instincts rather than thoughtful decision-making or intentional actions. Ultimately, he loses his dental practice and kills his wife when she refuses to reveal the location of her inherited money. Both characters are depicted as victims—she of violence and he of his own primal nature.

Readers and critics viewed the novel as excessively violent due to its grim depiction of human potential for brutality. Although other naturalistic works, like The Red Badge of Courage, also featured violence, none were as graphic or explicit. Despite this, the novel remains significant as a key piece of the naturalist movement and the crowning achievement of one of its leading figures.

The Red Badge of Courage

The Civil War story, The Red Badge of Courage (1895), catapulted Crane to international fame. The book's style and the powerful, emotional voice of a young soldier mesmerized critics and readers alike. Veterans of the Civil War commended its authentic depiction of wartime experiences. Although many Civil War narratives had been published since the 1860s, Crane’s work stood out to his contemporaries. Its vivid portrayal of this American historical period is evident in its continued presence in classrooms nationwide. The novel is not only a naturalist classic but also a testament to Crane’s creativity; born in 1871, six years after the war ended, he never fought in it, learning about it only through secondary sources.

The narrative follows a young man named Henry Fleming, who is filled with youthful enthusiasm and eager to join the war. After enlisting, he grapples with doubts about his bravery and romanticized views. Crane uses the war as a fictional "laboratory" to test his young protagonist. The war acts as an intense set of environmental conditions, and Henry's journey takes him from uncertainty to self-assurance. True to Naturalism, Crane presents Henry’s fate as a series of outcomes influenced by his inherent traits (his desire for adventure) and his new environment (the demands of war). Crane employs various typical naturalistic techniques, such as symbolism, third-person narration, and detailed description.

Sister Carrie

Dreiser's debut novel, Sister Carrie, was released in 1900. Upon its release, the book stirred controversy due to the main character's lack of morality and the implication that she benefits from her immoral actions. Despite this, many readers and critics consider it a poignant and truthful depiction of a young woman who leaves her rural upbringing to forge a new life in Chicago. After a short stint in a factory, she moves in with a prosperous salesman and becomes his mistress. Before long, she attracts the attention of an even wealthier older man who abandons his wife and career to elope with Carrie. They eventually find themselves in New York, where they part ways, and Carrie successfully embarks on a career in theater.

As a naturalist author, Dreiser aimed to expose life's harsh realities and explore how individuals can seize opportunities to mitigate those difficulties. While some of Dreiser's peers viewed Carrie's amoral lifestyle as inappropriate, others appreciated its candid realism. This novel is also significant because it displays Dreiser's early leanings toward the naturalist style. For instance, he removes Carrie from her familiar Midwest surroundings and places her in the unfamiliar urban landscape of Chicago to examine how her desires and needs influence her choices. The setting effectively becomes a backdrop for observing the character's transformation. Other elements of the novel, such as Dreiser's meticulous attention to detail and his depiction of the struggling lower class, align with the naturalist style.

The Call of the Wild was transformed into an audio version by Naxos Audio Books (abridged) in 1995, narrated by Garrick Hagon. Dercum released an unabridged version in 1997, read by Samuel Griffin.

The book was brought to the silver screen in 1908 by the Biograph Company; in 1923 by Hal Roach Studios; in 1935 by 20th Century Pictures featuring Clark Gable; and in 1972 by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, with Charlton Heston in the lead role.

The Call of the Wild was also turned into television movies in 1976 by Charles Fries Productions; in 1993 by RHI Entertainment, with Rick Schroder; and in 1997 by Kingsborough Greenlight Pictures. Additionally, it was developed into a TV series in 2000 by Cinevu Films and Call of the Wild Productions.

Sister Carrie was adapted into an audio format by Books on Tape in 1997, with narration by Rebecca Burns, and in 2000 by Blackstone Audio Books, read by C. M. Herbert.

McTeague: A Story of San Francisco was converted into an audio version by Audio Book Contractors in 1994.

The same story was made into a film in 1915 by William A. Brady Picture Plays, Inc., and was adapted into a television opera by Robert Altman in 1992, produced by The Lyric Opera of Chicago and aired on Public Broadcasting Station.

The Red Badge of Courage was transformed into an audio format in 1993 by Bookcassette Sales, narrated by Roger Dressler.

The book was adapted into a film in 1951 by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, directed by John Huston and starring Audie Murphy.

The Red Badge of Courage was also made into a television movie in 1974 by 20th Century Fox Television.

An American Tragedy was adapted into a film in 1931 by Paramount. It was reimagined in 1951 as A Place in the Sun.

Sources

Beach, Joseph Warren, The Twentieth Century Novel: Studies in Technique, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1932.

Pizer, Donald, Realism and Naturalism in Nineteenth-Century American Literature, Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.

Further Reading

Brown, Frederick, Zola: A Life, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. This comprehensive biography of Émile Zola illustrates his significance as an author, intellectual, and political figure. Compiled over fifteen years, it includes insights from Zola’s personal letters.

Fast, Howard, ed., The Best Short Stories of Theodore Dreiser, Elephant Publishers, 1989. While Dreiser is primarily recognized for his novels, he also penned short stories. Fast curates the finest examples of Dreiser’s work in short fiction in this collection.

Kershaw, Alex, Jack London: A Life, Griffin, 1999. Kershaw explores the thrilling and brief life of Jack London in this lively biography, covering his literary pursuits, adventurous nature, social and environmental activism, and controversial beliefs.

Norris, Frank, The Best Short Stories of Frank Norris, Ironweed Press, 1998. This is the inaugural compilation of Norris’s short stories, praised by critics for selecting fourteen standout tales from over sixty available. Although these stories differ from his renowned novels, they still showcase his naturalistic style.

Wertheim, Stanley, A Stephen Crane Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing, 1997. This comprehensive volume offers students insights into Crane’s brief life, along with analysis of his works, characters, settings, and the key issues of his era.