landmarks in the evolution of dramatic form. Chief among these playwrights was American Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953), who authored several groundbreaking plays. These includeDesire Under the Elms (1924), which uses Freudian psychology to explore a New England infanticide, The Great God Brown (1926), where actors wear masks to present their "personalities" to one another, Strange Interlude (1928), a lengthy play where characters often "step outside of themselves" to share their thoughts directly with the audience, and Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), a trilogy that reinterprets the Orestes myth in the context of Civil War America.

Another significant innovator in drama was Luigi Pirandello (1867-1936), whose Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921) follows six roughly sketched fictional characters as they attempt to explain their existence to a group of actors in rehearsal.

Eliot's primary contribution to the reimagining of dramatic forms was his innovative use of verse. Although verse drama reached its pinnacle with William Shakespeare (1564-1616), its presence on stage had significantly diminished over time. As a poet, Eliot adeptly utilized verse as a dramatic language, allowing his characters to converse in a "realistic" manner. In his 1951 book On Poetry and Poets, Eliot noted that the issue with many nineteenth-century verse plays was "their limitation to a strict blank verse [lines of ten syllables with alternating stresses] which, after extensive use for non-dramatic poetry, had lost the flexibility which blank verse is to have if it is to give the effect of conversation."

Consequently, the versification in Murder in the Cathedral avoids adhering to a rigid metrical pattern. As Eliot explained, this approach "helped to distinguish the versification from that of the nineteenth century." The decision to use verse was crucial for Eliot, who defended it in his 1928 "Dialogue on Dramatic Poetry" by stating, "The tendency... of prose drama is to emphasize the ephemeral and superficial; if we want to get at the permanent and universal we need to express ourselves in verse." Although verse plays remain less popular than those written in prose, Eliot's work successfully rekindled audience interest in this dramatic form.

Tragedy
''Tragedy'' as a dramatic genre is typically defined as the tale of a noble character who battles against his own nature or destiny, despite facing almost certain defeat. An exemplary model of tragedy is Sophocles's Oedipus the King (5th century BC), where Oedipus, the ruler of Thebes, endeavors to rid his city of a curse, only to discover that he himself is the source of the evil. Eliot's play incorporates several classical tragic elements, such as the use of a Chorus to reflect on the events, dialogue written in verse, and a storyline that ends with the protagonist's demise.

Thomas emerges as a tragic figure through his immense passion and quest to resolve the dilemma he confronts. Unlike many tragic heroes, Thomas does not possess a "flaw" or, as Hamlet termed it, a "mole of nature": he isn't oblivious to his fate (like Oedipus), he isn't driven by uncontrolled emotions (like Othello), and he isn't ruined by the illusions of his own mind (like Willy Loman).

Instead, Thomas remains resolute and confident; even when he questions his motives for seeking martyrdom, he finds the strength within himself to decide that he will be the "instrument" of God. Although Thomas meets his end, a more profound and wonderful event occurs when the Chorus finally grasps God's will and exalts His wisdom and power. Unlike Hamlet, who perishes amidst a scene of carnage and elicits pity and fear from the audience, Thomas dies as he depicts Christ: bringing the "peace" of God to the world. Murder in the Cathedral utilizes the tragic form, but its tragic outcome is confined to the physical plot—the spiritual life of its protagonist transcends death.

SettingMurder in the Cathedral was specifically written for performance at the 1935 Canterbury Festival and was staged in the Chapter House of the cathedral, a mere fifty yards from the actual site of Becket's assassination. Beyond its purpose for the Festival, Eliot likely had additional artistic intentions for setting the play in a non-traditional theatrical space.

Chief among these intentions is the awareness that the original audience would not feel as though they were in a conventional theater; instead, they would be in a location deeply connected to the history of the play's protagonist. The impact of such a setting is clear: by situating the action in the Chapter House, Eliot emphasized the link between the past and the present. While the play's events take place in 1170, a 1935 audience member would become acutely aware that the play's themes are just as relevant to their contemporary life. As the cathedral endures, so too do the issues examined by the play remain pertinent to modern existence.

Rhetoric and Oratory
There are only two parts in the play where characters do not speak in verse: Thomas's Christmas Day sermon and the Knights' "apologies" to the audience. In both instances, the speakers aim to manipulate language to persuade their listeners (rhetoric) and deliver their words for maximum impact (oratory). During Thomas's sermon, he tries to involve the congregation in the same thought processes he has been experiencing, particularly the paradoxical nature of martyrdom. He presents several paradoxes for them to ponder, such as the notion that "at the same moment we rejoice" at Christ's birth, we do so because we know he would eventually "offer again to God His Body and Blood in sacrifice."

Similarly, Thomas seeks to persuade his followers that God creates martyrs based on a similar paradoxical principle: "We mourn, for the sins of the world that has martyred them; we rejoice, that another soul is numbered among the Saints in Heaven, for the glory of God and the salvation of men." Anticipating that his people will soon "have yet another martyr," Thomas aims to convince them to understand the reasons for—and the rewards of—martyrdom, which they do by the play's conclusion.

However, when the Four Knights address the audience directly, they display more skill in cliched political rhetoric than in genuine public speaking. The First Knight tries to win over the audience by addressing them as "Englishmen" who "believe in fair play" and will surely "not judge anybody without hearing both sides of the case." The Third Knight emphasizes that the four of them "have been perfectly disinterested" in the murder, claiming they are not the King's lackeys but "four plain Englishmen who put our country first." The Second Knight assures that, while justifying their actions, he will "appeal not to your emotions but to your reason," arguing that "You are hard-headed, sensible people ... and not to be taken in by emotional clap-trap."

Once more, the viewer witnesses a Knight trying to win over the audience with empty rhetoric and flattery. Following this approach, the Fourth Knight uses pseudo-psychological language in an attempt to present a "logical" and "scientific" perspective on Thomas's actions. He labels Thomas as "a monster of egoism" and claims, "This egoism grew upon him, until it at last became an undoubted mania," based on what he describes as "unimpeachable evidence" he has collected. Wrapping up his speech, and the Knights' presentation of their 'case,' he confidently asserts like a seasoned trial lawyer: "I think, with these facts before you, you will unhesitatingly render a verdict of Suicide while of Unsound Mind. It is the only charitable verdict you can give, upon one who was, after all, a great man."

Despite these efforts to appear rational ("with these facts before you"), express faith in the audience's judgment ("you will unhesitatingly render" a "charitable verdict"), employ technical jargon ("Suicide while of Unsound Mind"), and feign objectivity about the murder ("who was, after all, a great man"), the Fourth Knight, like his fellow Knights, exemplifies someone who manipulates language to justify his actions and further a political agenda. This contrasts sharply with Thomas, who uses his rhetorical abilities to help his listeners grasp the will of God.

1170: King Henry II and Archbishop Thomas Becket begin to clash over the increasing influence of the Catholic Church. This marks the early stages of anti-Catholic sentiment that persists until the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829, which allows Roman Catholics to serve in Parliament and hold most public offices.

1935: Belfast experiences severe anti-Catholic riots. Northern Ireland expels Catholic families, prompting retaliations from Catholics in the Irish Free State.

Today: Although British counterparts generally coexist peacefully, tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants still manifest in bombings and terrorism in Northern Ireland. British Prime Minister Tony Blair engages in discussions with Irish representatives to address these and other issues, collectively known as the "troubles."

12th-14th Centuries: "Miracle" and "Morality" plays gain popularity. These plays depict the lives of Christ or the saints in dramatic form, often performed in churches during religious holidays or festivals.

1935: Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral is written for that year's Canterbury Festival and performed in the Chapter House of the cathedral. The play incorporates conventions and "stock" characters similar to those found in medieval morality plays.

Today: While morality plays are not commonly seen in commercial theaters, classic titles like Everyman are frequently studied and revived. Many churches perform "passion plays"—morality plays based on the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ—during Easter celebrations.

1170: The conflict between King Henry II and Thomas Becket, who staunchly defended the church's political rights, represents one of the earliest significant disputes between church and state in European history.

1935: The Nazi Party congress in Nuremberg makes a notorious attempt to control religious practices by stripping Jews of German citizenship and making relationships between "Aryans" and Jews punishable by death.

Today: While the separation of church and state is a given in America, the debate continues in issues like school curricula. Some school districts ban the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution as it conflicts with Creationist views, and groups protest the phrase "One nation, under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance.

Murder in the Cathedral was turned into a British film in 1952, directed by George Hoellering. The cast included Paul Rodgers and Leo McKern, with Eliot providing the voice for the Fourth Tempter.

Angel Records made a recording of the 1953 Old Vic cast's performance of the play.

In 1968, a recording featuring Paul Scofield was produced and is accessible through Caedmon Recordings.

Sources
Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life, Simon and Schuster, 1984, p. 227.

Bloom, Harold. Introduction to Twentieth Century Interpretations of Murder in the Cathedral, Chelsea House, 1988, pp. 1-4.

Donoghue, Denis. The Third Voice: Modern British and American Verse Drama, Princeton University Press, 1959, p. 83.

Eliot, T. S. "Dialogue on Dramatic Poetry" in Selected Essays, Faber and Faber, 1951, p. 46.

Eliot, T. S. Murder in the Cathedral, Harcourt Brace, 1935.

Eliot, T. S. "Poetry and Drama" in On Poetry and Poets, Faber and Faber, 1957, pp. 79-81.

Jeake, Samuel, Jr. [pseudonym for Conrad Aiken]. "London Letter" in the New Yorker, July 13, 1935, pp. 61-63.

Jones, David E. The Plays of T. S. Eliot, University of Toronto Press, p. 61.

Laughlin, James. "Mr. Eliot on Holy Ground" in New English Weekly, July 11, 1935, pp. 250-51.

Matthiessen, F. O. "For an Unwritten Chapter" in Harvard Advocate, December 1938, pp. 22-24.

"Mr. Eliot's New Play" in the Times Literary Supplement, June 13, 1935, p. 376.

Muir, Edwin. "New Literature" in the London Mercury, July 1935, pp. 281-83.

Parsons, I. M. "Poetry, Drama, and Satire" in Spectator, June 28, 1935, p. 1112.

Pottle, Frederick A. "Drama of Action" in Yale Review, December 1935, pp. 426-29.

Ransom, John Crowe. "Autumn of Poetry" in Southern Review, 1935-36, pp. 619-23.

Shillito, Edward. Review of Murder in the Cathedral in Christian Century, October 2, 1935, pp. 1249-50.

Van Doren, Mark. "The Holy Blisful Martir" in the Nation, October 9, 1935, p. 417.

Yeats, William Butler. "The Second Coming" in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume 2, W. W. Norton and Company, 1986, p. 1948.

Further Reading
Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life, Simon and Schuster, 1984, p. 227.
Although Ackroyd's book is an unauthorized biography, it provides a comprehensive study of Eliot's development as both a poet and a playwright.

Eliot, T. S. Selected Poems, Harcourt Brace, 1964. This collection includes some of Eliot's most renowned poems like "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "The Hollow Men," and "The Waste Land." Reading these poems offers students of Murder in the Cathedral insight into recurring thematic elements across different works.

Grant, Michael, Editor. T. S. Eliot: The Critical Heritage, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982, pp. 313-34. This compilation features numerous reviews of the original Canterbury Festival production of the play.

Hinchcliffe, Arnold P. T. S. Eliot, Plays: A Casebook, Macmillan, 1985. This book contains an extensive introductory collection of essays titled "Eliot's Aims and Achievements" and dedicates a chapter to each play, including many excerpts by Eliot himself.

Malamud, Randy. T. S. Eliot's Drama: A Research and Production Sourcebook, Greenwood Press, 1992. This invaluable book for any student of Eliot's plays includes a thorough introduction exploring Eliot's objectives in writing verse drama, chapters on the production history of each play, and a fully annotated bibliography.