The Great Depression

The play's setting notes indicate it occurs in the present, but it takes some investigation to understand what Hughes means by "present time." Although the play was published in the 1960s, its first performance was in 1935, and it was written in 1930 and copyrighted in 1932. Therefore, Hughes likely intended for the play to be set in the early 1930s. This period was tumultuous in America, experiencing the severe financial crisis known as the Great Depression. When the stock market crashed in 1929, the predominantly African American population initially thought it was a problem affecting only white people, as African Americans typically did not own stocks. Norwood references the Great Depression in the play when discussing buying a new car, saying, "Been thinking about getting a new one myself, but money’s been kinder tight this year, and conditions are none too good yet either. Reckon that’s why everybody’s so restless." However, African Americans, especially those in urban areas, were among the hardest hit, as they often held unskilled jobs that were the first to be cut by companies tightening their budgets. Consequently, African Americans like those on Norwood’s plantation were thankful to have any job at all, even if it meant working in the despised cotton fields that symbolized their ancestors’ slavery.

Racial Bigotry

During this period, many southern whites believed that blacks were racially inferior. Jim Crow laws, which varied from state to state in the South, were established to enforce racial segregation in jobs, public schools, parks, restaurants, hotels, trains, and buses. These laws were in effect for over 60 years. The term "Jim Crow" originated from a character in traveling minstrel shows that depicted blacks in a derogatory manner, thus becoming a racial slur that bolstered white supremacist views. Jim Crow laws provided ample support to penalize violators, sometimes through lynching. From 1889 to 1930, over 3,700 men and women, mostly southern blacks, were lynched in the United States. In the 1930s, the NAACP launched a campaign to challenge segregation through the legal system. This effort led to the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. The ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education effectively overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine, making it illegal for public schools to remain segregated.

In "Mulatto," the interplay of setting, language, and foreshadowing weaves a poignant tapestry that illustrates the intense racial tensions in the American South. The narrative unfolds against a backdrop rife with discrimination, underscored by the distinct dialects that accentuate the social divide. Through foreshadowing, the inevitability of tragic outcomes is foretold, encapsulating the grim reality for those who dared to defy societal norms.

Setting: The Southern Context

The setting of the play is pivotal, as it captures the essence of Southern racism during the era. While African Americans faced prejudice throughout the United States, the South was notorious for its entrenched racial discrimination. This is reflected in the character of Higgins, who warns Norwood about the potential repercussions of Robert's audacity in claiming his mixed heritage openly. Higgins predicts a violent backlash: "The white folks at the Junction aren’t intending to put up with him much longer." Robert’s insistence on asserting his identity is seen as overstepping a deeply ingrained social order, particularly in rural areas where racial roles were rigidly enforced.

Robert's experiences in cities like Atlanta, Richmond, and Washington, where African Americans appeared more liberated, contrast starkly with the oppressive atmosphere of the rural South. While urban areas offered glimpses of evolving racial dynamics, the cotton plantations, such as Norwood’s, remained bastions of old-world racism. Here, African Americans continued to...

1930s: The United States endures the Great Depression, a severe economic crisis that many blame on the recent stock market crash. During this period, unemployment rates soar.

Today: The United States faces a recession, a significant economic downturn that many link to the sharp decline in stock prices in recent years. Despite government efforts to bolster the economy, such as reducing federal interest rates, unemployment remains high, and consumer confidence—a key economic health indicator—stays low.

1930s: Although the Civil War ended over sixty years ago, racist sentiments persist in many parts of the United States, particularly in the South. This is especially evident in rural areas, where white communities often resort to lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante justice against African Americans. The victims of these actions frequently have little means of seeking justice.

Today: Despite the Civil Rights movement concluding over thirty years ago, racism continues to exist in the United States. Southern Congressman Trent Lott attracts national attention after making racist remarks. Following this highly publicized incident, there is significant outrage within the African American community, leading to Lott's resignation as the Republican majority leader in the U.S. Senate.

1930s: The United States and other Allied nations brace for World War II. Hitler is seen as a fascist tyrant who must be overthrown to achieve global peace.

Today: The United States and some of its allies are at war with Iraq, suspecting the country of concealing weapons of mass destruction. Saddam Hussein, Iraq’s leader, is identified as a dictator who must be removed to ensure peace.

Sources

Emanuel, James A., ‘‘Chapter 1: The Big Sea,’’ in Langston Hughes, Twayne’s United States Authors Series, No. 123, Twayne Publishers, 1967.

Hughes, Langston, The Collected Works of Langston Hughes, Vol. 5, Plays to 1942: ‘‘Mulatto’’ to ‘‘The Sun Do Move,’’ edited by Leslie Catherine Sanders and Nancy Johnston, University of Missouri Press, 2002, pp. 17–50.

Hurst, Catherine Daniels, ‘‘Langston Hughes,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 7: Twentieth-Century American Dramatists, edited by John MacNicholas, Gale Research, 1981, pp. 314–24.

Martinson, Deborah, ‘‘Langston Hughes,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 228, Twentieth-Century American Dramatists, Second Series, edited by Christopher J. Wheatley, Gale, 2000, pp. 116–27.

Rampersad, Arnold, ‘‘Langston Hughes,’’ in African American Writers, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991, pp. 193–204.

Turner, Darwin T., ‘‘Langston Hughes as Playwright,’’ in CLA Journal, Vol. 11, No. 4, June 1968, pp. 297–309.

Further Reading

Aptheker, Herbert, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 3, From the NAACP to the New Deal, Carol Publishing Group, 1993. Unlike many other volumes on African American history, Aptheker’s study, originally published in 1973, uses primary documents such as essays, reports, speeches, letters, and news articles from individuals who lived during this era. Collectively, the book provides a comprehensive picture of African American life from 1910 to 1932.

Berzon, Judith R., Neither White nor Black: The Mulatto Character in American Fiction, New York University Press, 1979. This book explores the various mulatto characters that American authors have introduced in their works. The author examines the struggle many of these characters faced in reconciling their mixed heritage.

Earle, Jonathan, The Routledge Atlas of African American History, Routledge, 2000. This book chronicles four centuries of African American history and culture in the United States, from the arrival of the first African slaves in the early 1600s to the present day. It includes short essays on multiple topics, each illustrated with photographs, charts, graphs, maps, and other visuals. The book also features a timeline of African history from 3200 B.C. through the late 1990s.

Rampersad, Arnold, The Life of Langston Hughes, Vol. 1, 1902–1941, I, Too, Sing America, Oxford University Press, 1988. Rampersad provides a critical biography of the first part of Hughes’s life, detailing the formative experiences that shaped him. Notably, the book discusses the significant impact that Hughes's father's rejection had on his life and work.