Historical Context
Born in 1888, Eugene O'Neill lived through some of the most significant events in modern history. Although he did not directly participate in these events, the themes involved—especially those concerning democracy and materialism—are central to his plays.
O'Neill matured during America's Progressive Era. Interested in politics and political philosophy, the young playwright mingled with radicals and reformers within his Bohemian circles in Greenwich Village and Provincetown.
O'Neill was a close friend of John Reed, the journalist famous for his book on the Russian Revolution, Ten Days That Shook the World. O'Neill also had a long-term affair with Reed's wife, journalist Louise Bryant. Many critics believe that O'Neill's play Strange Interlude was inspired by this love triangle. His works often delve into the challenges facing American society, such as rampant materialism, the erosion of individuality, and a lack of spiritual values.
Between 1900 and 1920, over ten million European immigrants arrived in America. O'Neill's father and his family were part of an earlier wave of immigration, arriving from Ireland in 1850. The promise of factory jobs and mass transit drew millions to the cities, transforming America into an increasingly urban nation. Many of these immigrants brought with them a tradition of union activity and joined the American labor movement.
During his presidency, Theodore Roosevelt sought to regulate large corporate interests and enforce anti-trust laws. In 1902, he brokered an arbitrated settlement during a major coal strike. President William Howard Taft, although less aggressive than Roosevelt, generally continued these progressive policies by breaking up the Standard Oil Company's monopoly and establishing a Children's Bureau and Department of Labor.
President Woodrow Wilson advocated for banking reform and anti-trust measures, supported farm loans, and pushed for a ban on child labor for those under fourteen—though the Supreme Court later ruled this action unconstitutional. In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution granted women the right to vote.
Domestically, politicians made little progress in ending segregation, curbing the growing influence of the Ku Klux Klan, or stopping practices that prevented many African Americans from voting. In two of his plays, O'Neill created leading roles for black characters: The Emperor Jones (1920) and All God's Chillun Got Wings (1924). Both plays were produced by the Provincetown Theatre.
This period also saw American imperialism rise. Overseas, the United States fought the Spanish-American War in 1898 and gained colonial influence in places like Cuba and the Philippines. In 1903, the U.S. gained control over Panama and started constructing the Panama Canal.
In Europe, industrialization, colonialism, and militarism culminated in World War I. Wilson initially tried to keep the U.S. neutral, limiting trade with the belligerent nations. However, the United States entered the war in 1917. After the war ended in 1919, Wilson worked towards establishing the League of Nations, the precursor to today's United Nations.
Falling wages, problems in the agricultural sector, protectionist tariffs, and the overproduction of manufactured goods all played a role in the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression, which left millions unemployed. Although President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal policies, which involved government spending to boost employment, did improve the situation to some extent, the American economy did not fully recover until the onset of World War II.
In Mourning Becomes Electra, O'Neill's symbolic use of the post-Civil War era showcases his grasp of American history and ideology. He draws parallels between the Civil War, fought over strong ideological convictions, and World War I, largely driven by colonial conflicts. Additionally, he contrasts New England's Puritan heritage of the nineteenth century with modern America, where conformity and materialism foster cultural relativism and a lack of a moral compass.
Literary Style
Chorus
In...
(This entire section contains 343 words.)
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traditional Greek tragedies, the chorus is made up of masked actors who engage in dancing and chanting. Typically, they do not participate directly in the events, allowing them to remain impartial and provide advice or commentary. They often deliver background information and reflect the community's stance or traditional values. In theMourning Becomes Electra trilogy, the groups
of locals whose conversations and actions introduce the plays function as the
chorus.
Expressionism
Expressionism is an art style focused on conveying internal experiences and
psychological truths. This form of art does not aim to depict a realistic view
of the world; instead, it seeks to evoke a powerful "true" experience of a
specific emotion, feeling, or state of mind in the viewer.
Many of O'Neill's plays incorporate expressionistic elements, such as masks that hide the actors' faces and asides where actors speak directly to the audience without being heard by others on stage. In Mourning Becomes Electra, expressionistic features include the pairing of characters (Lavinia mirrors Christine and Orin mirrors Ezra) and the symbolism of the Mannon house, which resembles a Greek temple.
Naturalism
Naturalism is a nineteenth-century theory that emerged following Darwin's
theory of evolution. Naturalists viewed people as products of their heredity
and environment. Naturalistic drama portrays human life similarly to animal
nature, driven by Darwinian instincts. These natural forces often diminish or
even negate an individual's free will.
In Mourning Becomes Electra, naturalistic elements are evident in how the characters' personal histories and environments shape their actions and motivations.
Realism
Realistic theater strives to depict authentic character actions, situations,
and motivations. The stage is designed to recreate the experience of a
real-life scenario. Realistic drama avoids melodramatic acting, theatrical
effects, and conventional dramatic devices like deus ex machina,
character asides, and soliloquies.
Setting
The setting refers to the location where the play's events occur. Settings
often carry symbolic significance. For instance, the neoclassical architecture
of the Mannon mansion in Mourning Becomes Electra resembles a Greek
temple, reminding us that the play is a retelling of a cycle of Greek
tragedies.
Compare and Contrast
1931: Amid the Great Depression, America is grappling with a severe economic downturn. Under President Franklin Roosevelt's leadership, the federal government introduces and enacts a series of social initiatives known as ‘‘The New Deal.’’
Today: The nation enjoys a strong and expanding economy. Despite a significant gap between the affluent and the impoverished, many people benefit from low interest rates, low unemployment, a thriving stock market, and affordable, easily accessible fuel.
1931: Train and ship travel dominate American transportation. Commercial aviation is minimal, but cars are increasingly popular and affordable for the middle class. This enhanced mobility enables people to relocate from cities to nearby suburbs.
Today: Cars and airplanes are the primary modes of transportation for most Americans. Airline price wars have reduced fares, making frequent and inexpensive air travel accessible to many.
1931: Robert Frost's Collected Poems wins a Pulitzer Prize, philanthropist Albert Schweitzer publishes My Life and Thoughts, Disney releases its first color film, Flowers and Trees, and the "Star-Spangled Banner" is designated as America's National Anthem.
Today: Robert Frost remains a revered and influential poet. Schweitzer's commitment to serving others has inspired many, exemplified by Mother Theresa's work with the sick and Jimmy Carter's efforts with Habitat for Humanity. Nowadays, most films on television and in theaters are in color.
Setting
The Mannon mansion stands as a grand symbol of authority and prestige, located on the outskirts of a quaint, unnamed New England village. Perched atop a hill near the sea, the mansion implies the Mannon family’s perceived dominance and superiority over the town below. This stately home is the primary backdrop for twelve of the thirteen acts in Eugene O’Neill’s trilogy, Mourning Becomes Electra. As the trilogy unfolds, the audience is gradually introduced to various parts of the mansion, transitioning from its imposing exterior to the intimate interiors of the study, Ezra’s bedroom, and the sitting room. O’Neill’s meticulous attention to architectural and environmental details—such as the surrounding woods, orchard, garden, and greenhouse—emphasizes the mansion’s critical role in the narrative’s progression.
Beyond the mansion, only one other setting appears in the trilogy: the deck of a clipper ship and the adjacent wharf. This maritime scene is reserved for the fourth act of The Hunter, the trilogy’s second play. Here, a dramatic confrontation unfolds when Orin Mannon, the son of General Mannon, confronts and ultimately kills the ship’s captain. This brief departure from the mansion’s confines underscores pivotal moments in the narrative, offering a stark contrast to the sheltered world of the Mannon estate and highlighting the tumultuous events that unfold within the trilogy’s complex story.
Media Adaptations
In 1947, RKO Pictures unveiled a film adaptation of the play, featuring Raymond Massey, Rosalind Russell, and Michael Redgrave. This movie condenses the play's six hours of action into three hours.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Brustein, Robert. "Eugene O'Neill," in The Theatre of Revolt: An Approach
to the Modern Drama, Little, Brown, & Co., 1964, pp. 329-59.
Carpenter, Frederic I. Eugene O'Neill, Twayne Publishers, 1979.
Clark, Barrett H. Eugene O'Neill: The Man and His Plays, Dover, 1947.
De Voto, Bernard. "Minority Report," in Playwright's Progress: O'Neill and the Critics, edited by Jordan Miller, Scott, Foresman, & Co., 1965, pp. 108-12.
Jensen, George H. "Eugene O'Neill," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 7, edited by John MacNicholas, Gale Research, 1981, pp. 141-63.
Further Reading
Black, Stephen A. Eugene O'Neill: Beyond Mourning and Tragedy, Yale
University Press, 1999, 480 p.
A thorough and well-researched biography of O'Neill.
Bloom, Harold, ed. Eugene O'Neill, Chelsea House, 1988, 183 p.
A collection of critical essays on O'Neill's works.
Bogart, Travis, ed. Selected Letters of Eugene O'Neill, Yale University Press, 1988, 602 p.
A compilation of O'Neill's letters offering insights into his life and career.
Stroupe, John H., ed. Critical Approaches to O'Neill, AMS Press, 1988.
A collection of critical essays analyzing O'Neill's work.
