Historical Context
Arthurian Legend
The annals of history remain silent on the existence of the legendary figure known as “King Arthur” from the fabled tales of Camelot. Echoes of a leader named “Arthwyr” reverberated across the British Isles beginning in the sixth century, yet during that era, the land was fragmented into numerous kingdoms now recognized as England. Bereft of written records, linking any historical persona to the legendary Arthur is a formidable challenge. This task is further muddled by the enchanting myths woven with magic and sorcery that have entwined the legend over the centuries, casting shadows of doubt on any claims of authenticity.
Among the multitude of assertions about a historically accurate King Arthur, Geoffrey of Monmouth's account has wielded the most significant influence. During an era when little was known about England's past, Geoffrey unveiled his work in 1136, titled History of the Kings of England. This tome charted the nation’s lineage of rulers from 1100 B.C. to 689 A.D., providing England with a narrative rich enough to rival the grand histories of Rome and Greece. Distinguishing fact from Geoffrey’s imaginative storytelling poses a conundrum. Today's familiar tales of Arthur with Merlin, Niniane, the Round Table, and the quest for the Holy Grail largely spring from Geoffrey's rendition of long-standing myths.
The History of the Kings of England portrays Arthur as the offspring of Uther Pendragon and Ygerna, the consort of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. In Geoffrey’s narrative, tension brewed between Uther and Gorlois when Uther became enamored with Ygerna. Gorlois fortified his castle against an impending assault, but Merlin conjured a spell to transform Uther’s appearance into that of Gorlois, granting him access to both the fortress and Ygerna’s chamber. Upon Arthur's birth, Merlin whisked the infant away to safety.
Merlin emerged as a later addition to the oral traditions surrounding King Arthur, first appearing in texts from the tenth century. Originally called “Myrddin,” Geoffrey altered the name to avoid its unfortunate resemblance to the French word merde. In Geoffrey’s chronicle, Merlin orchestrated not only Arthur’s birth but also the mystical challenge to determine his rule. Following Uther’s death, a magical sword embedded in stone awaited the one destined to lead England, a task only Arthur could accomplish, thanks to Merlin’s foresight.
The legend offers varying tales about Merlin's fate. The character known as Niniane in “Merlin Enthralled” has been referred to as Nineve, Nimue, Nyneve, or “the Lady of the Lake,” though she is usually one among several holding this title. In Geoffrey’s narrative, Merlin accompanies a gravely wounded Arthur to Avalon, a mythical island. Other renditions, aligning more closely with Wilbur’s, narrate how Merlin, smitten with Niniane, imparted his magical secrets to her. In turn, she ensnared him, whether in a glass tower, a cave, a tree, or the lovers' tomb. Her moral standing fluctuates across tales: in the Estoire de Merlin, a medieval French vulgate, she imprisons him out of love. Conversely, Sir Thomas Malory’s 1485 text Le Morte d’Arthur depicts her assisting Arthur post-Merlin’s imprisonment. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, writing in the nineteenth century, paints Niniane as a malevolent sorceress.
The 1950s
In the mid-1950s, when Wilbur first unveiled his poem, America found itself in a political landscape notably devoid of passionate or charismatic leaders. The year 1956 saw Dwight Eisenhower, a venerable former general with a storied past as the commander of Allied forces in World War II, secure a second presidential term despite his declining health. Though Eisenhower enjoyed personal popularity, his administration was populated by uninspiring, nondescript bureaucrats. Richard Nixon, his vice president, epitomized this era's mood—a competent administrator...
(This entire section contains 879 words.)
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with a knack for international diplomacy, yet someone many Americans neither trusted nor liked. This sentiment foreshadowed his future presidency and eventual resignation amidst scandal. The era's central geopolitical issue was the Cold War, a tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union, each vigilantly eyeing the other’s influence across the globe. Despite the high stakes, a direct confrontation never erupted, earning the conflict its “cold” moniker.
The government played an active role in everyday life, scrutinizing citizens suspected of communist sympathies. Meanwhile, television was evolving into its next phase. After World War II ended in 1945, televisions rapidly became staples in American homes, with networks initially airing programs that resembled stage performances. By the late 1950s, however, broadcasters began crafting original content, finding fantasy and adventure to be ideal for television’s format. Shows spotlighting legendary figures such as the Lone Ranger, Tarzan, and Robin Hood fit perfectly into the segmented half-hour slots, in turn shaping public taste. As "Merlin Enthralled" hit the cultural scene, the nation was primed for a new heroic icon.
Fast forward to 1960, when the charismatic Robert F. Kennedy ascended to the presidency, triumphing over Nixon. Radiating youthful charm and partnered with an intelligent, style-savvy wife, Kennedy ushered in a fresh era for the nation. That very year, Broadway welcomed the debut of the musical Camelot, and soon political pundits were drawing parallels between King Arthur’s legendary Round Table and Kennedy’s newly minted administration. Even now, the term “Camelot” endures in American journalism, conjuring the grandeur of Kennedy’s tenure as frequently as it evokes the mythical reign of Arthur.
Literary Style
Quatrain
A quatrain forms the building blocks of a poem through its four-line stanza, each line often mirroring the others in syllabic count. This balance crafts a harmonious visual and auditory experience, offering an appealing symmetry. It's the quintessential choice in English poetry, embracing familiar rhyme schemes like AABB or ABAB. In a poem such as “Merlin Enthralled,” quatrains facilitate swift transitions between scenes and perspectives. Despite frequent shifts in focus, the conventional structure of the quatrain eases the flow, reassuring readers with its recognizable form. This geometric precision anchors readers amidst the poem’s enigmatic dance between reality and illusion.
Rhyme
In the realm of poetry, rhyme weaves a tapestry of sound, aligning words that echo each other at the line's end. "Merlin Enthralled" adheres to a stringent rhyme pattern, unwavering throughout: each stanza's first and third lines, and second and fourth, conclude with rhyming words. Often, these rhymes are straightforward, pairing simple, single-syllable companions like “frog” and “log” or “swell” and “spell.” Occasionally, two-syllable matches emerge, such as “riding” with “hiding,” and “horses” with “forces.” The poem’s boldest steps away from strictness involve multi-syllabic words, their rhymes clinging to the final syllable. This creative leap is seen in the fifth stanza with “imagined her” and “sorcerer,” and again in the eighth with “understand” and “when this hand.”
Amidst the twentieth-century wave of free verse, steadfast adherence to rhyme was somewhat rare. Most poets sought liberation from rhyming constraints or embraced looser interpretations where subtle sound similarities sufficed. Yet, “Merlin Enthralled” finds its strength in its traditional rhyme scheme, echoing the classic structures of verse. Considering Wilbur’s homage to tradition, this alignment feels both fitting and necessary.
In Medias Res
"In Medias Res," a Latin phrase meaning "in the middle of things," describes works like "Merlin Enthralled," which plunge into the heart of action already underway. Through this approach, stories often rely on flashbacks to fill in the gaps, though Wilbur chooses to remain focused on the unfolding drama. As the knights of the Round Table grapple with Merlin's disappearance, their motivations for delayed action remain shrouded in mystery. Though answers elude them, the poem’s style hints at intuitive understanding. Their journey is instinctive, from pausing by the lake to Arthur sensing Merlin’s magical absence as he rides. Readers sense the knights may possess an unspoken awareness, guiding their actions without clear rationale. This unfinished puzzle enhances the poem's allure, drawing readers into a narrative already in motion and reminding them of Camelot's grander tapestry.
Point of View
Point of view is the lens through which a story is seen and shared. Often tethered to a character within the tale, at times it may also adopt an "omniscient" stance, revealing insights unknown to its cast. "Merlin Enthralled" dances between perspectives, sometimes elusive and shifting.
Typically, the perspective aligns with the characters in focus. For example, it is likely the knights who sense that “in all the world was no unnatural sound” or who hear the “alien fracas” of squirrels, though these words may not be their own. In the fifth stanza, while centered on Merlin, a phrase like “a creature to bewitch a sorcerer” alludes to Niniane, likely an observation from the poem's narrator rather than Merlin himself. As the seventh and eighth stanzas unfold, Merlin’s viewpoint becomes clearer, his perception perhaps clouded by Niniane’s enchantment, questioning if his end is as serene and freeing as he believes.
The poem occasionally adopts an omniscient voice, offering reflective commentary from broader, thoughtful vantage points, interspersed with a potent direct quote from King Arthur. In these pivotal moments, Arthur grasps the reality of Merlin's demise and its profound implications.
Compare and Contrast
Era of the 500s
500s: Britain finds itself a patchwork of clashing kingdoms, grappling with the relentless advance of Saxon invaders. For a fleeting moment, local leaders rally together, managing to push back against the Saxon tide, yet ultimately, the island is enveloped and colonized by these formidable newcomers.
500s: The enigma of King Arthur looms large, shrouded in ambiguity due to the paucity of written chronicles and the near non-existence of communication across distant lands.
500s: International clashes are resolved through the clangor of swords and the crushing force of maces. Myths speak of otherworldly powers wielded by mystical figures like Merlin and Niniane.
The 1950s
1950s: Britain emerges as a venerable pillar of civilization, perceived by Americans as the "old world," steeped in timeworn political traditions such as colonial rule and monarchy.
1950s: The rise of television transforms public discourse, offering politicians a direct line to the populace, altering the landscape of political communication forever.
1950s: In the aftermath of Hiroshima and Nagasaki's devastation, a chilling specter of nuclear annihilation grips the global psyche, as the terrifying might of atomic and hydrogen bombs casts a long shadow.
The Present Day
Today: By the 1960s, the last vestiges of Britain's colonial presence in Africa faded into history, while the British Royal Family now holds only ceremonial influence.
Today: Although television remains a conduit for politicians to reach the citizenry, savvy viewers approach such broadcasts with a critical eye, wary of the nuances of image crafting.
Today: Though nuclear weapons have exponentially increased in destructive potential, they remain dormant in warfare. Modern military focus now rests on advancing fighter jets, submarines, tanks, artillery, intelligence, and strategic ingenuity.
Media Adaptations
The evocative work "Merlin Enthralled" graces the 1969 Caedmon record album, Richard Wilbur Reading His Poetry. This captivating piece also found its way into the world through an audiocassette release by Harper-Collins.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Gregory, Horace, “The Poetry of Suburbia,” in Partisan Review, Fall 1956, pp. 545–53.
Harris, Peter, “Forty Years of Richard Wilbur: The Loving Work of an Equilibrist,” in Virginia Quarterly Review, Summer 1990, pp. 412–25.
Hecht, Anthony, Review of New and Selected Poems, in New Republic, May 16, 1988, pp. 23–32.
Hill, Donald L., Richard Wilbur, Twayne Publishers, 1967, pp. 118–20.
Hougen, John B., Ecstasy Within Discipline: The Poetry of Richard Wilbur, Scholars Press, 1995, pp. 3–23.
Further Reading
Goodrich, Norma Lorre, King Arthur, Franklin Watts, 1986. King Arthur offers an in-depth scholarly look at the Arthurian legends with the intention of separating reality from myth.
Littleton, C. Scott, and Linda A. Malcor, From Scythia to Camelot: A Radical Reassessment of the Legends of King Arthur, the Knights of the Round Table, and the Holy Grail, Garland Publishers, 2000. This book traces Arthurian legends beyond British history to Russian and Ukranian roots and serves as a fascinating example of folklore detection.
Scott, Nathan A., Visions of Presence in Modern American Poetry, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Scott looks at the sense of “reality” in the poetry of several contemporary poets, including Wilbur, in order to refute the theory that poetry is a thing of words unconnected to an objective world experience.
Snyder, Christopher A., An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons, A.D. 400–600, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998. Snyder presents serious and direct historical exploration of the time when Arthur was supposed to have lived, as well as an appendix linking Arthurian legend to the known facts.
