What are the biblical references and classical allusions in Act 4 of The Merchant of Venice?

There are several biblical references in this act. In act 4, scene 1, Antonio refers to himself as “a tainted wether of the flock / Meetest for death.” In speaking of a “wether,” or lamb, that is “meet,” or appropriate for death, Antonio is referring to the biblical idea of a sacrificial lamb.

In the same scene, after the verdict is delivered, Shylock evokes Daniel from the Old Testament book of that name. He is referring to the story of Daniel’s actions on behalf of Susanna, who was falsely accused, that resulted in her exoneration. When the verdict is amended to prevent the spilling of blood, Gratiano uses the reference, but now to indicate that the tide has turned against Shylock.

Later, Shylock also refers to the “stock of Barrabas” in relation to the idea of a Christian husband. Barabbas was the condemned man released when Jesus was crucified. This extreme reference emphasizes Shylock’s antipathy toward Christians.

A classical allusion appears in act 4, scene 1, when Gratiano speaks of agreeing with “Pythagoras” regarding the movement of the spirits, or “souls,” between animals and humans. This allusion is to the concept of “transmigration” associated with the ancient Greek philosopher, which put forward that souls could move into other animate beings or inanimate objects.

What mythological and biblical allusions are used in The Merchant of Venice?

There are numerous allusions made throughout William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The allusions made are meant to make the reader think about how the allusion makes a statement about what is going on in the text. Allusions are tricky though; if a reader is unfamiliar with the allusion being made, it loses its power. The allusion, therefore, comes to mean nothing for the reader and the reference is lost.

Act 1 contains numerous mythological allusions and one main biblical allusion. The mythological allusions are those of Sibylla (Apollo's lover), Diana (the goddess of the hunt, the moon, and nature), and Jason (whose search involved the epic golden fleece). The biblical allusion made in this act is where Jesus casts demons into a heard of swine (Matthew 8:31). Many of the mythological references made in this act speak to the actions of gods and goddesses on behalf of those they loved. The reference to the Bible speaks to the power Jesus had over the demons and the grace he showed them by allowing them to take over the pigs, run into the water to die, and have control of their own fate.

Act 2 also possesses numerous mythological references. There are references to the Fates, Cupid, and Jason's staff. The Fates are referenced when Launcelot and Old Gobbo are discussing the idea that fate, or the Fates, are dead and no longer in control of life. Cupid is referenced when Jessica is speaking about him blushing to see her dressed as a boy. This is actually ironic, given that Cupid, like love, is blind. For him to be able to blush, he would have to be able to see Jessica dressed as a boy, which would take the power of love being blind away. Bassanio, in this act, evokes Jason's task to gain the golden fleece (something his uncle thinks to be impossible) to gaining Portia's love, and her own "golden" locks (hair). A biblical allusion to Jacob's staff also appears in this act. Here, Shylock brings up the story of Jacob's actions being those brought about through his actions, which Shylock states were done through the intervention of God. He does this to illustrate that his own actions are inspired and accepted by God.

Act 3 contains a couple of references to mythology: Hercules and King Midas. Morocco, a potential suitor to Portia, compares himself to Hercules in order to illustrate his great strength. Bassanio, mentally stronger than Morocco, tells the story of Midas and his golden touch. Knowing that gold aligns with a vice, and dismissing Midas's desire for wealth, Bassanio does not choose the golden casket, knowing the pain and distress the golden touch caused Midas.

What are some biblical or mythological references in The Merchant of Venice?

I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me I will execute—and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction (3.1.51–64).

Shylock's famous speech in act 3, scene 1 of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice—and one of the most famous speeches in all of Shakespeare's plays—summarizes one of the most well-known verses of The Bible (emphasis added):

And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life, Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, Burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe (Ex. 21:23–26 KJV).

This Old Testament principle of lex talionis (the "law of retaliation") also appears elsewhere in The Bible (emphasis added):

And thine eye shall not pity; but life shall go for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot (Deut. 19:21 KJV).

...

And if a man cause a blemish in his neighbour; as he hath done, so shall it be done to him; Breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth: as he hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be done to him again (Lev. 24:19–20 KJV)

The tenet of "an eye for an eye" originated in the Code of Hammurabi, a collection of 282 laws written about 1780 BCE by Hammurabi (c. 1810–c. 1750 BCE), who ruled the Babylonian Empire from 1792–50 BCE.

If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.

Shylock interprets these laws literally. He's been injured by Antonio, and he demands and expects what he believes is his rightful revenge against him.

Not only will I adhere to the letter of the ancient laws, says Shylock in his speech, but as I am taught how to revenge by Christians—like Antonio, who insults him, calls him "misbeliever, cut-throat dog, / And spit[s] upon my Jewish gaberdine" (1.3.110-111)—"I will better the instruction" (3.1.63–64).

Shylock doesn't simply want to revenge this most recent injury by Antonio, but he seems to want to revenge all of the injuries ever done to him by Antonio or anyone else.

It is Portia who instructs Shylock in the New Testament interpretation of Shylock's Old Testament laws in another of Shakespeare's most famous speeches that begins,

The quality of mercy is not strain'd,
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven ... (4.1.187–188).

Portia simply restates another well-known verse from The Bible:

Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also (Matt. 5:38–39 KJV).

Shylock insists that the court follow the letter of law, and essentially be complicit with him in his revenge against Antonio.

SHYLOCK. My deeds upon my head! I crave the law,
The penalty and forfeit of my bond (4.1.209–210).

Portia and the court grant Shylock's demand, and they also adhere to the absolute letter of the law, as Shylock insists.

PORTIA. ... Take then thy bond, take thou thy pound of flesh;
But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shed
One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods
Are, by the laws of Venice, confiscate
Unto the state of Venice (4.1.316–320).

Shylock's Old Testament laws are used against him, and he suffers not only the loss of the money that Antonio owes him, but he also loses all of his money and property, and he's forced to convert to Christianity as well.

What are some biblical or mythological references in The Merchant of Venice?

Back in Belmont, the place of love contrasted with the sordid business arena of Venice, Lorenzo and Jessica make three mythological references in act 5, scene 1. The evening is beautiful, and they liken themselves to famous lovers (though, ironically and humorously, lovers from love stories in which events did not turn out well) from classical literature: Troilus and Cressida, Pyramus and Thisbe, and Dido and Aeneas.

Not surprisingly, many biblical references occur in the play. For example, when Portia says the quality of mercy is not strained (overused), she is appealing to a Christian audience's sense that the qualities of mercy and forgiveness, which are highly praised in the New Testament, superseded and became more important than the Jewish emphasis on justice. Shylock distorts the Jewish concept of justice in his demand for a pound of flesh from Antonio.

Launcelot quotes from the biblical prophet Ezekiel in act 3, scene 5, telling Jessica that:

Yes, truly, for look you, the sins of the father are to be laid upon the children.

This is to help persuade her to marry him so that the "sin" of being Jewish is not laid upon her: as the wife of a Christian, it will be easy for Jessica to convert.

These references just scratch the surface of what can be found by reading the play.

What are some biblical or mythological references in The Merchant of Venice?

Many allusions to the Bible and to various mythologies appear in Shakespeare's works, and The Merchant of Venice is no exception.

In act 1, scene 3, when Bassanio invites Shylock to join them for a meal, Shylock says, "Yes, to smell pork; to eat of the habitation which your prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil into. I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you." In Matthew 8:28–34, Jesus casts demons out of two possessed men and into a nearby herd of swine (pigs), who then charge to the water and drown. Shylock is a caricature (often offensive) of a Jewish man, and he is referencing this moment to indicate that he disapproves of the food they eat and their Christian lives generally; it signals that he is different from them and that there is little trust between them. Additionally, the Jewish Bible or Tanakh (what Christians refer to as "the Old Testament") dictates that eating pork is forbidden.

In act 2, scene 5, Shylock asks Jessica, "What says that fool of Hagar's offspring, ha?" He is referring to Launcelot and insulting him by comparing him to the biblical figure of Ishmael, son of the Abraham by his wife Sarah's handmaiden, Hagar. According to the Bible, Abraham's son by Sarah, Isaac, is a father of the Jewish people, while Ishmael is an outcast, sent away when Sarah disapproves of him. However, Shylock doesn't know Launcelot is encouraging Jessica's relationship with Lorenzo; he is more important than Shylock assumes. Similarly, Ishmael, while sent away by Sarah, lives and also becomes a father to a nation.

In act 3, scene 2, there are several references to Greek and Roman mythology in Bassanio's monologue as he chooses between the three caskets. He refers to the gold casket as "gaudy gold, hard food for Midas," referring to the Greek myth of King Midas, who turned everything he touched to gold. Midas accidentally turns his daughter to gold with this "gift," which shows itself to be more like a curse; Bassanio is indicating his distaste for the gold casket and his reasons for not picking it. He also refers to the beards of Hercules, a Greek hero, and Mars, the Roman name for the Greek Ares, the god of war, saying, "How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false/As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins/The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars; Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk." This also emphasizes his reasons for not picking the flashy caskets, indicating that value does not lie in appearances—that some men might look like brave heroes and gods but not behave like them.

What is the allusion to Venus in The Merchant of Venice?

There is one allusion to Venus in William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. This occurs in act 2, scene 6, during the scene in which Shylock's daughter, Jessica, elopes with Lorenzo.

At the beginning of the scene, Gratiano and Salerio are waiting for Lorenzo outside Shylock's house. Jessica is waiting inside the house, disguised as a boy to aide in their escape through a festival in the streets of Venice to Belmont, where Lorenzo and Jessica will "housesit" for Portia while Portia, disguised as a Doctor of Law, comes to Venice to defend Antonio against Shylock.

Lorenzo is late to the meeting, and Gratiano remarks that "it is marvel he [Lorenzo] out-dwells his hour, / For lovers ever run before the clock" (2.6.4–5). Gratiano means that he's surprised that Lorenzo is late, because lovers are usually early for their meetings with one another.

Salerio expands on Gratiano's remark.

SALERIO. O, ten times faster Venus' pigeons fly
To seal love's bonds new-made, than they are wont
To keep obliged faith unforfeited! (2.6.6–8)

What Salerio is saying is that time passes ten times faster for new lovers, especially for lovers who are about to be married, than for couples who've been married for a long time.

Salerio's speech also contains an allusion to "Venus' pigeons," which refers to the twelve doves (not pigeons) that pull the Goddess of Love's chariot or her golden, jewel-encrusted carriage in ancient mythology. The dove, well-known as a symbol of peace, is also a symbol of love and beauty, as is Venus.

This scene also contains an allusion to Venus's son, Cupid, the god of desire.

When Jessica appears "above," meaning on a balcony—in much the same way that Juliet appears "above" Romeo in the famous "balcony scene"—she tells Lorenzo that she's embarrassed to be disguised as a boy.

JESSICA. For I am much asham'd of my exchange [her disguise as a boy]:
But love is blind, and lovers cannot see
The pretty follies that themselves commit;
For if they could, Cupid himself would blush,
To see me thus transformed to a boy. (2.6.37–41)

Nevertheless, Jessica comes down through the house to Lorenzo, taking some of Shylock's ducats on the way, and she and Lorenzo blend into the street crowd and make their way to Belmont.