SOURCE: Willem, Linda M. “Variations on Engaño and Honra in the Interpolated Novelettes of Guzmán de Alfarache.” Hispanic Journal 8, no. 2 (Spring 1987): 7-20.

[In the following essay, Willem discusses how Alemán inserts several novelettes into Guzmán de Alfarache to accentuate his overarching themes concerning honor and deceit.]

In general, critical opinion concerning the role of the interpolated novelettes in Guzmán de Alfarache falls into two camps: those who consider them to be significantly linked to the main narrative; and those who see them as extraneous stories which serve the essentially decorative function of providing a diversion from the picaresque adventures while displaying Alemán's virtuosity at affecting a variety of literary styles. Condemnation or praise of the novelettes in consistent with the individual critic's degree of commitment to structural unity. Consequently, the scholars of the latter group are divided in their assessment of the appropriateness of the interpolated material's presence, while those of the first category hail the stories as legitimate variations in style and plot which develop the structural devices or thematic concerns posited in the larger framework. In this vein, Donald McGrady (145-167) and Robert J. Glickman (88-127) view the novelettes as exemplary tales which share with the digressions in the main text the function of providing moral comment and criticizing social ills; Edmond Cros proposes that the multiple metamorphoses of character identities and the coexisting dualities of true/false and reality/appearances in the same entity are basic unifying devices which connect the stories to the surrounding text (373-90); J. V. Ricapito cites the themes of love and marriage as being common to both the tales and Guzmán's adventures; and Carroll Johnson finds the D. Alvaro Luna novelette to be attached to the narrative segments directly preceeding it through the theme of power vs. impotence.

Though many of these scholars mention engaño and honra, only Maurice Molho's discussion of the novelettes focuses on these themes (LXX-LXXII). According to Molho, the interpolated stories use noble characters to present the mainstream societal norms of the day—a worldy honor code of public ethics which contrasts with the Christian morality professed by the penitent Guzmán. As such, these stories serve as a counterpoint to the main text's picaresque adventures with their socially marginal characters. However, since Molho does not differentiate between innocent. deceptions and malicious lies, he equally condemns all the characters in these tales, thereby placing Ozmín and Daraja on the same ethical plane as the villainous Claudio or the vengeful Horatio. Yet this distinction is clearly made in the main text itself, which discusses honra and engaño in terms of their positive and negative components. Thus far no study has addressed this issue and its bearing on the function of the interpolated tales within their surrounding narrative. Similarly, the relationship between these main themes and the corollary terms of apariencias and interés, as seen in these stories, has not been thoroughly explored. Therefore, the following discussion will demonstrate how there four themes interact to link the individual novelettes to each other and to the text as a whole.

The state premise of Guzmán de Alfarache is that it is an autobiographical account by a repentant sinner who is offering up his life as a moral lesson for all to avoid. During the course of the narrative the adult penitent Guzmań engages in a variety of digressions of a moral, religious, or social nature. Two lengthy speeches, one concerning engaño and the other on honra, are pertinent to this discussion. The first is found in volume II, book i, chapter 3, where Guzmán sets engaño at the top of the hierarchy of the world's evils and equates it with lying. He then sets up four classifications of engaño in which all manner of things and people participate:

1. “Cuando quien trata el engaño, sale con él, dejando engañado a el otro” (2:65). That is, the deceiver successfully dupes another for his own gain.
2. “Junto con el engañado lo queda también el engañador” (2: 65). Here the motivation and actions of the deceiver are the same as above, however, he loses his desired prize through the trickery of another.
3. “Cuando son sin perjuicio, que ni engañan a otro con ellos ni lo quedan los que quieren o tratan de engañar. Lo cual es en dos maneras: o con obras o palabras” (2: 66). This type of deceit, through a lie, is free of evil intent, “son sin algún daño ni perjuicio de tercero” (2: 66).
4. “Cuando el que piensa engañar queda engañado, trocándose la suerte” (2: 66). The motivation and actions are again identical to the first type, however, the attempt is unsuccessful, and the deceiver is himself deceived (“el burlador burlado” formula of the period). A sub-category consists of “otros muchos géneros destos engaños” which involve the use of feigned appearances or behavior to fool others but results in self-deception (2: 67).

Another key sermon by Guzmán appears in volume I, book ii, chapters 2-4. Here the distinction is made between the way honra should be defined (based on virtue and the doing of good works), and the manner it is mistakenly defined by society (deriving from public opinions). This latter form he calls “vanas honras”, the desire for which cause men to participate in such unethical behavior as cheating others in order to enrich their own reputations; affecting appearances to misrepresent their abilities; purchasing rather than earning positions of authority; and misusing their professions for financial advantage. In this narrative segment Guzmán limits his discussion of honor to what Gustavo Correa defines as horizontal honor—one's reputation as commonly held by the community, based on feminine virtue and masculine “hombría”. This contrasts with vertical honor—social status conferred automatically through birth or granted through remarkable merits beyond those of the ordinary man. Here Guzmán exposes the basic flaw in the system. Since horizontal honor rests on public opinion, it has become a social phenomenon judged publicly through observable outward behavior rather than being an individual matter judged privately on the basis of personal integrity. This situation leads to the possible manipulation of public opinion through feigned appearances, in which case deceit can produce a favorable impression despite the dishonest motivations involved. Indeed, an individual's horizontal honor is supposedly based on a highly structured system of acceptable behavior. However, since the public has access to only the outer manifestations of the person's adherence to this system, it, therefore, can merely assess his observable external behavior and assumes the existence of internal intentions which are appropriate to that behavior. Consequently, while honor is theoretically based on an honor code, in practice it is based on appearances which, in one's self-interest, are subject to possible alterations, thereby transforming appearance into artifice. Thus, what publicly appears to be honorable behavior can indeed be a faithful reflection of sincere motivations, or it can be well disguised evil intent. Similarly, behavior that is publicly deemed dishonorable can in fact be what it seems, or it can mask honorable intentions misread by the community due to the public's preconceived ideas about appropriate behavior.

In the above digressions Guzmán divides deceit and horizontal honor into their positive and negative components: malice free engaño and virtuous honra on one hand, and victimizing engaño and vanas honras on the other. Moreover, connections are made between engaño and vanas honras since both exploit appearances (apariencias) for personal gain (interés). In this way deceit and honor, supposedly antithetical elements, share the same support system. The various adventures and digressions in the main text provide variations on one or more of these themes; however, it is the lengthy format of the interpolated tales that lends itself to the presentation of all four concepts (engaño; honra; apariencias; interés) and their interdependence. In addition, these stories reflect the positive and negative value judgments which are placed on the types of deceit and honor. The Ozmín and Daraje tale addresses the positive side of engaño and honra. In this story false appearances are used to deceive but not harm, and their purpose is to serve true love and virtue rather than self-interest and vanity. The other novelettes differ from this first in that they present the negative facets of engaño and honra. Each explores the use of false appearances to deceive at another's expense, and shows public opinion as the sole yardstick for measuring one's honor. The four themes will be considered as they relate to each other within two separate contexts—one positive and the other negative. The one positive representative will be discussed first, followed by the remaining three novelettes in order of complexity.

“La historia de los dos enamorados Ozmín y Daraja” (I, i, 8) is the tale of two Moorish lovers, separated during the Christian siege of Baza, who out of necessity engage in a series of deceptions to become reunited with each other and their families. The introductory description of Ozmín and Daraja sets up the framework upon which the engaño and honra themes are developed. Though Moors, they possess qualities ascribed to both vertical honor (nobility) and horizontal honor (virtue and hombría). The daughter of an alcalde and maternally related to the King of Baza, Daraja exhibits “discreción, gravedad y gracia” beyond her years (1: 198). Ozmín, “mancebo rico, galán discreto y sobre todo, valiente y animoso” (1: 200), is her equal in character as well as lineage, being the King of Granada's cousin. Their relationship is one of deep mutual affection and respect, and the chaste nature of their love is stressed. Moreover, the lovers are highly proficient in Spanish with Daraja speaking it so well “que con dificultad se le conociera no ser cristiana vieja” (1: 198), and Ozmín “como si en el riñón de Castilla se criara y hubiera nacido en ella” (1: 200). In effect, their characteristics suggest a national and religious duality—they are Moors with Spanish, old Christian qualities. It is precisely these qualities and abilities that help the lovers later to successfully complete their engaños. Consequently, Ozmín's pretense of being a Christian Spaniard transgresses the letter but not the spirit of the definition.

Throughout the story neither Ozmín nor Daraja commit a dishonorable act, though their behavior may be judged as immoral or cowardly on the surface. Daraja remains constant in her love for Ozmín and never compromises her virtue. Her deceptions are centered on her attempts to stave off the attentions of the gentlemen around her while she works toward being reunited in marriage with Ozmín. Nevertheless, she is the target of slanderous gossip spread by members of don Luis' family concerning her apparently indiscreet private conversations in the garden with the disguised Ozmín. When don Rodrigo acts on these accusations by imprisoning Ozmín, Daraja cleverly uses the public concept of honor to her advantage. She secures the release of Ozmín by telling don Rodrigo that he himself damaged her reputation by lending credence to the lies of the gossip-mongers. Indeed they are lies in that they reproach her for immoral behavior when in fact all she had done was openly speak with her betrothed. However, since no one knows of her true relationship with Ozmín, Daraja's behavior could well be considered immodest by onlookers.

The distinction between outward appearances and inward motivations also is seen in Ozmín's behavior. Throughout the story Ozmín repeatedly rejects the outward bravura associated with hombría and vanus honras while consistently behaving in accordance with the tenets of true honra. Though of noble birth, for example, he dresses and works as a commoner to be near his beloved. Similarly, his participation in the tournament events leaves no doubt as to his valor and physical prowess, yet he doesn't rashly enter into a fight he can't win when he is siezed by don Luis' guards. Also, it matters little to him whether he is hanged like a commoner or beheaded like a nobleman, but he refuses to betray Daraja even to save his own life during his trial, and he bravely faces his execution with composure and dignity. All these actions are grounded on the highest principles of honor and are subject to Ozmín's self-regulation by his conscience. Public censure, though present, is inappropriate.

Ozmín and Daraja engage in a series of elaborate engaños, none of which are motivated by base concerns. The interés involved is the honest and honorable desire to fulfill their marriage contract. No harm is done to those deceived despite the fact that Daraja's numerous suitors actively commit a disservice to Ozmín by trying to dissuade Daraja in her love for him. Even the terminology used to describe the lover's engaños lessens their culpability; the individual deceptions being variously called “una imaginación” or “discreta disimulación”. The engaños involve a variety of identity changes by Ozmín which are achieved through the use of disguises and fabricated stories. However, it is not the multiple identities and false appearances themselves that are of prime importance; but rather the way they are used to create a secret bond of recognition between Ozmín and Daraja, and how they are employed to manipulate the expectations of others in order to achieve the lovers' innocent goal.

At their first meeting after Daraja's capture both lovers are dressed in Christian clothing and Ozmín looks pale and thin from his recent illness. Due to their altered appearances neither recognizes the other immediately. This lack of recognition is subsequently avoided by means of signs, a handkerchief and an Arabic song, which are used throughout the remaining story to allow the lovers to know each other's identity. The handkerchief appears to be an ordinary object to outside observers, and the Arabic song is generally perceived as merely a pleasant melody. Thus, these signs fulfill the dual function of deceiving others while secretly communicating information between the Moorish couple. Similarly, whenever possible Ozmín and Daraja speak to each other in Arabic, a language not understood by those around them. Clearly two groups have emerged: the in-group (engañadores) who are privy to secret information, and the out-group (engañados) who judge by appearances and are thereby misled. By controlling appearances Ozmín and Daraja are able to manipulate the expectations of their audience, thus allowing their covert, real plan to succeed while diverting attention to their observable actions.

A clear example of manipulated expectations is seen when Ozmín, in the guise of a Christian day laborer named Ambrosio, is enlisted by don Rodrigo to aid him in persuading Daraja to renounce her religion and become his bride. Ozmín carefully chooses his words and responds by saying: “cuánto deseo que Daraja siga mi ley” (1: 213). Thus he builds on don Rodrigo's expectations, which are based on false appearances, and deceives him by telling the truth. Believing Ozmín to be a fellow Christian, don Rodrigo is content in his assumptions as to the meaning of the reply. Similarly, Ozmín abandons his pretense of being a commoner when he needs don Alonso's sponsorship to be allowed to participate in the tournament. Aware that don Alonso is insufficiently skilled to defeat don Rodrigo, and also knowing that don Alonso would welcome the appearance of an opponent who could triumph over his rival, Ozmín assumes the identity of a Spanish nobleman. As such, he has the appropriate qualifications of a tournament contestant. In this way, Ozmín is able to reaffirm his own valor in Daraja's presence while simultaneously challenging the two men who are courting her. Indeed, Ozmín's ability to control others is evident from the moment he enters into Christian territory. When detained at the border, he uses the captain's expectations concerning acceptable noble behavior to be allowed to pass into the country. His story of being don Luis' son is believed precisely because he offered the captain a bribe, as would any Christian nobleman in the same situation.

The two groups, consisting of the engañadores (Ozmín and Daraja) on the one side and the engañados (everyone else) on the other side, do not merge until after Ozmín's rescue when he ironically reveals his true identity during a masked ball. At this point a new in-group/out-group stituation has been established. Now it is Ozmín and Daraja that are being controlled by those who possess information unknown to them. The King and Queen secretly arrange to have Ozmín, Daraja and their parents brought together in one location. Like the other engaños in the novelette, this final one by the Catholic monarchs is innocent. Not only is it free of bad intentions, it is predicated on good ones—converting the lovers and reuniting them with each other and their families.

All the engaños of this story are of the innocent third classification (“sin algún daño ni perjuicio”) and the behavior of the protagonists, which at times appears dishonorable, actually rests on a foundation of true honra. The following tales serve as counterpoint to these positive aspects of depicting several variations of negative engaño. Proceeding in order of complexity, this study will conclude with the two novelettes which are adaptations of Masuccio Salernitano's thirty-second and forty-first tales found in Il Novellino.

In contrast with the Moorish couple above, Dorido and Clorinda (I, iii, 10) engage in a sensually oriented love affair with no intention of legitimizing their actions though marriage. Fully aware of their behavior would not be condoned by Clorinda's family, they endeavor to achieve their goal through deception. First, Dorido feigns a friendship with Clorinda's brother, Valerio, to gain free admittance to their home by day. Then, with the help of Clorinda's maid, the lovers stage nocturnal secret meetings during which they communicate through a gap in the stone wall around Clorinda's house. With these actions Clorinda places her family's honor in deopardy, however, her consuming passion for Dorido leads her to act selfishly. Indeed, she will not even consider the honest advances of another suitor, Horacio, who proposes marriage despite knowing of her illicit relationship with Dorido. After being rebuffed, Horacio allows jealousy and hatred to overwhelm him and he devises a vindictive plan. After detaining Dorido one night, he goes to the wall in his place and mimics the customary signs used between the couple. During this pretense he cuts off the hand Clorinda extended toward him through the opening in the wall. In doing so Horacio takes the calculated risk that Clorinda and her family will not expose themselves to public shame by reporting the incident to the authorities, which in effect is the way the situation is handled. In order to avoid a scandal Clorinda does not allow herself to scream out in pain, and her parents secretly care for her wound with the aid of a discreet doctor. The only other person outside the family to learn of the event is Dorido, in whom Valerio confides out of friendship. Dorido's immediate response is to marry Clorinda. However, it is important to keep in mind that this marriage is far different from that of Ozmín and Daraja. Whereas theirs is a logical outcome of chaste love and parental respect, this marriage between Dorido and Clorinda is based on a foundation of revenge and used as a means of recouping lost family honor. As Clorinda's husband Dorido would supercede her father and brother as the primary instrument for avenging the offense against her. In this capacity Dorido invites Horacio to his home, drugs him, cuts off his hands, strangles him, and strings him up for public display with a sign around his neck proclaiming his crime.

This story demonstrates the lengths to which one would go to preserve one's reputation. Clorinda's determination not to call attention to herself, though she is mortally wounded, is understandable given the social climate of the day; as is the reaction of Clorinda's parents whose worry for their daughter is overshadowed by their concern over their own loss of public esteem. Similarly, it is in keeping with the times that the premeditated murder of Horacio falls under the category of justifiable vengence and serves to cancel the blot on Clorinda's family name. This attitude consititutes an acceptance of a code of behavior which blatantly contradicts the Christian precepts of turning the other cheek and leaving vengeance to the Lord. It is significant that the notice telling of the crime leaves out any details which would reflect badly on Dorido or Clorinda. In this way, society's definition of honorable behavior has been satisfied, and Horacio emerges as the only villain.

The initial segment of the Dorotea and Bonifacio story (II, ii, 9) specifically deals with the concept of vertical honor, an issue not addressed in the other novelettes. Dorotea, though impoverished, is of higher birth than Bonifacio. Overcoming this obstacle through various legitimate forms of persuasion, but never resorting to trickery, Bonifacio eventually convinces her to marry him. His actions constract with the methods used by Claudio to gain Dorotea's favors. With the help of his slavewoman, Claudio contrives an elaborate ruse wherein the unsuspecting couple is duped into believing that Dorotea would be spending a few days at a nunnery, while in fact, she is taken to Claudio's home where she is raped. The plan succeeds not only because Dorotea is physically overcome by her attacker, but more importantly, because of her fear of the scandal which would result should she scream for help and be found in such a compromising position. This brings up the question of horizontal honor. Though she had been sexually dishonored by Claudio, the entire matter is personal and private, and therefore neither she nor her husband suffer any loss of public esteem. This situation changes, however, with the outbreak of the fire during which she is discovered and jailed by a jealous lieutenant who plans to publicly expose her shame the next day as a revenge for Dorotea's previous rejection of his amorous advances.

This chain of events sets in motion a series of retaliatory engaños by Dorotea designed to keep her dishonor from becoming common knowledge. First, she frustrates the lieutenant's plans by changing clothes with Claudio's slave woman, who remains in jail in her place while Dorotea escapes. Then, she goes to Claudio's house and reestablishes the conditions of the original engaño by bringing together once again the group of women who had traveled with her on her supposed journey to the convent. The next day, in the company of this retinue, she returns home and affects the appearance of nothing having happened, thereby leaving her husband ignorant of all the events of the previous day.

Though Claudio's deception was motivated by base desires while Dorotea's were played out solely in response to her victimization, all these engaños are of the negative classification since they each aim to deceive at another's expense for personal gain. Dorotea is the innocent victim of Claudio's trickery; however, she willfully acts on her self-interested desire to escape public shame by contriving a deception of her husband, and using as co-conspirators the very people who were responsible for her downfall. Her failure to confide her shame to Bonifacio places him in the role of the cuckolded husband.

More than any other interpolated story, this narrative underscores the mechanics of honor. It first addresses the horizontal aspect where inequality of birth can be compensated for financially, then it speaks to the societal nature of vertical honor. The actuality is that Dorotea was dishonored by Claudio, but the appearance (and therefore the social reality) is that she was not. Similarly, since her shame is not openly revealed, her husband remains deceived but not dishonored. In the same vein, Claudio's loss of honor at the close of the narrative is not the result of his own scandalous covert activities, but rather is due to the publicly exposed indescretions of his sister.

This story is a relatively faithful rendering of novella XXXII in Masuccio's Salernitano's Il Novellino. Alemán retains the strategy and intentions of the three basic engaños, yet his minor additions contribute significantly to altering the overall tone of the tale. Alemán introduces the question of unequal birth between Dorotea and Bonifacio, which affords the opportunity to deal with the previously unexplored topic of vertical honor. More importantly, Alemán attaches the ruin of Claudio's reputation onto the end of the story as a type of moral addendum to the transpired evens. Claudio is seen receiving his just deserts, but as a result of divine retribution rather than as a function of societal censure. His act of rape is a personal crime against Dorotea, and as such, it goes unpunished because it is unknown. He suffers public scorn merely by association, with his sister bearing the brunt of her disgrace. In both modifications of Masuccio's novella Alemán shifts the focus of the narrative toward the question of honor, and in so doing minimizes the cleverness of the individual engaños. Though the changes are minimal, Alemán's text projects a concern for the intentions and consequences of behavior not seen in its Italian inspiration.

“Un caso que succedió al condestable de Castilla, Don Alvaro de Luna” (II, i, 4) is the most complex novelette due to its discoursive format and because it presents variations on the most intricate of the engaño classifications, that of type four where the deceiver is himself deceived. The novelette itself is a frame story which contains a romantic tale related in two sections by separate narrators. The opening frame establishes a contest between don Rodrigo and don Luis to be judged by don Álvaro de Luna in which each of the two young gentlemen is to recount “un caso de amores, el de mayor peligro y cuidado que le hubiese sucedido” (2: 81). The object of the contest is to entertain don Álvaro, who offers a diamond ring as a prize. Motivated by their desire to own the diamond, don Luis and don Rodrigo tell separate parts of the same adventure; but each manipulates the information in such a manner as to trick don Álvaro into believing that he is the more deserving contestant. The closing frame involves the judging of the contest and the awarding of the prize. Don Álvaro finds neither story worthy of the diamond and names a third party as its recipient, thereby changing the rules of the contest. Don Luis and don Rodrigo had hoped to dupe don Álvaro with their slanted versions of the events, but find themselves instead to be the objects of his engaño. Don Álvaro received what he wanted from them—an entertaining afternoon's diversion—and they are left with nothing in return.

The story within a story framework allows for the development of engaños in both the exterior frame and the interior tale. It is appropriate that the chapter heading which introduces the novelette focuses on don Álvaro—though the bulk of the narrative concentrates on the other gentlemen—because of don Álvaro is the protagonist of the basic supporting framework whose plot he dominates, first by his use of interés to manipulate the young noblemen, and then by his successful completion of the engaño against them. The interior tale, in addition to developing a separate set of engaños, is necessary to development of the exterior frame's engaño. The manner in which the tale is related shows the strategy of the narrator (don Luis or don Rodrigo) in his attempt to deceive don Álvaro.

Don Luis begins his story by affirming that it will be told “real y verdaderamente, desnudo de toda composición” (2: 81) unlike the stories of some loves who “para contar sus desdichas las vayan matizando con sentimientos, exageraciones y terneza de palabras, en tal manera, que por su gallardo estilo provoquen a compasión los áimos” (2: 81). Indeed his deceit does not rely on exaggeration or embellishment, but rather on omission. He presents himself as a suitor with honorable intentions of marriage and discreet behavior toward his lady, his foolish extravagances being caused by a sincere desire to please the object of his constant love, who later proved to be unworthy by rejecting him in his impoverished state for a rich but much older man. In short he presents himself as “the wronged lover.”

By stopping the story at this point, don Luis is able to remain within the boundaries of a truthful tale since his entire story is based on what he had believed to be the truth before he received the letter. In this way his selective use of the truth is a means of deceiving don Álvaro. He has allowed don Álvaro to draw inferences based on the information given. The omission of the remainder of the story is necessary in order not to contradict the desired impression. Don Luis' argument rests on the assumption that his actions and motivations were founded on true honra. If he were able to continue the story, he would expose his dishonorable and adulterous intentions and actions. In addition, the lady's husband rather than don Luis would then be shown to be the actual “wronged lover.”

Though don Rodrigo was party to the entire adventure, don Luis is certain that he will corroborate this limited version of the truth rather than reveal his shame at being the butt of the joke played by don Luis and the lady. However, in order to frustrate don Luis' attempt to deceive don Álvaro, don Rodrigo does choose to finish the story, and in doing so he turns the events to his advantage by telling him in such a way as to disguise his own shame as betrayed trust. Don Rodrigo's story is in the form of a rebuttal. Before presenting his own case, he discredits don Luis' position by revealing the existence of the letter. Like don Luis, he then strives to give himself a positive appearance by stressing the honorable nature of his own actions, which were supposedly motivated by the bonds of friendship and his aversion to acts of cowardice. However, unlike don Luis, who emphasized the cuidado aspect of his love story, don Rodrigo concentrates on the peligro aspect. Using the exaggeration device rejected by his opponent, don Rodrigo magnifies the danger of his position by talking of his unarmed status and of the great risk he faced. Since the actual situation of having passed the night at the side of a “señora doncella” posed no real threat to his safety, he stresses the potential danger involved by focusing on the consequences of being discovered had the count really been there. He concludes his tale by relating his feelings of betrayal that resulted from the injustice and ridicule he suffered at the hands of those for whom he had placed himself in such peril. That is, don Rodrigo presents himself as the “innocent victim” though he is actually guilty of actively participating in a scheme to defraud the lady's husband.

Thus, both gentlemen rest their respective cases on the values associated with true honra. Though their actions were dishonorable, each uses a different technique (omission or exaggeration) to give himself the appearance to don Álvaro of being honorable in order to win the contest's prize. In effect, their engaños consist of feigned honor for personal gain.

Aside from the considerations of narrative style, the internal tale is important for its development of the engaño staged by the lady and her lover, don Luis. In this story of disguised and mistaken identity, don Rodrigo dresses as the lady and believes her sister to be the sleeping count. Clearly the point of the jest rests on the fact that the deceiver, don Rodrigo, becomes the deceived. However, it is important to differentiate between the two successful engaños played by don Luis and his lady, each of which has its victims. The first involves the cuckolding of the lady's husband who, though not deceived in the manner proposed to don Rodrigo, remains the innocent victim of his wife's infidelity during his absence. The second involves the joke played on don Rodrigo. However, he is not the only victim in this situation. Indeed, the real innocent victim of this engaño is the lady's sister. She is as much the object of the engaño as is don Rodrigo, but she is the only participant in the adventure who did not willingly deceive another. All of the others falsely present themselves as honorable: don Luis as the chaste and constant lover; don Rodrigo as the self-sacrificing friend; and don Luis' lady as the dutiful daughter who married against her will to please her parents. Only the sister, however, is truely without blame. Indeed, she was not merely ignorant of the intrigues around her, as was the absent husband, but she was also made to be the unknowing participant in them. Asleep in her sister's bed while the count was away on a journey, she unwittingly spent the night beside a man with whom no previous romantic relationship had been established. Whereas don Luis was unaware of the identity of his bedpartner, the sister was unaware of the very existence of hers. Innocent and vulnerable while sleeping through this episode, it is she and not don Rodrigo who faced shame, danger and betrayal as her honor was placed in jeopardy by her own sister. Don Álvaro's present of the diamond allows her to triumph over those who used her wrongly; however, once again she is a passive participant in another's engaño. Though she has a pivotal role in don Luis' and his lady's engaño of don Rodrigo as well as in don Álvaro's engaño of the gentlemen, she has no voice in either. A pawn in both deceptions, she is victimized in one and rewarded in the other.

The origin of this novelette is another of Masuccio's tales, novella XLI of Il Novellino. Donald McGrady had noted the structural alterations introduced by Alemán and the resultant difference in tone, with Alemán's version changing Italian Renaissance sensuality into Spanish Baroque disillusionment with wordly pleasures. Nevertheless, since this story has largely been considered a mere translation of Masuccio's tale, critical attention in the main has been diverted from its study in favor Alemán's more “original” interpolated material. However, Masuccio's version only forms the basis for the engaño played by don Luis and his lady. Alemán's use of the frame story structure, and the alterations made in the tale itself substantially change the thrust of Masuccio's novella, a brief summary of which follows: while in Florence, two French soldiers (Filippo and Ciarlo) fall in love with two sisters. Ciarlo's love is secret, but Filippo makes his known to the lady, who reciprocates through she is married. Despite Filippo's promise of consistancy, he and Ciarlo soon forget the sisters once they return to France. In order to chastise him and to renew his interest in her, the married women sends Filippo a fine gold ring with an obviously counterfeit diamond and the engraved inscription, “Lama zabatani.” Charmed by her ingenuity, Filippo and Ciarlo return to her home one night where they are told by her servant that the women needs Ciarlo to act as her proxy by lying beside her husband in bed while she and Filippo enjoy each other. Ciarlo, though hesitant, succumbs to the pleas of his friend. He undresses and lies naked in the bed with a sleeping figure at his side. After passing a sleepless night, he is greeted at daybreak by the unexpected entrance of the happy, laughing lovers. They show him that he had spent the night at the side of his beloved, the woman's sister, who had taken part in the ruse. After momentary embarrassment, Ciarlo joins in on the merriment. The two pairs of lovers then retire to their separate rooms to resume their lovemaking.

Though the basic engaño of the deceiver being deceived is used in both Alemán's and Masuccio's versions, the treatment is quite different. Masuccio presents it as an elaborate jest played against Ciarlo who, though the object of the joke, sees its humor. The two sisters along with Filippo are coconspirators in the trick, but their intentions toward Ciarlo are not malicious. Neither the sister nor Ciarlo is victimized since the sister is a willing participant and Ciarlo is rewarded with the amorous attentions of his lady. Indeed, all four are collaborators in the successful engaño of the absent husband, and all four share in the benefits. Throughout the tale the cleverness and wit associated with trickery are highlighted. For example, the diamond ring is coupled with a cryptic message, thus becoming a challenging puzzle. Similarly, the identity of Ciarlo's bed companion is revealed by the droll observation that man is the only animal who cannot recognize his mate by her scent. In short, Masuccio delights in the joyous aspects of the jest while Alemán stresses the malicious aspects of the deceit. In the latter's hands the lovers' engaño loses its innocence, the diamond ring becomes a symbol of interés, and the disclosure of the episode is a source of shame and lost honra for all involved. Alemán reworks rather than translate Masuccio's forty-first tale, and in doing so he transforms it into a story of victimization which he then places in a framework which develops the same concerns.

In conclusion, it can be said that the majority of the interpolated novelettes depict the interrelationship between negative engaño, apariencias, vanas honras, and interés. When Alemán makes use of plotlines originated by Masuccio, he alters them to reflect these themes. Only one novelette, “Ozmín y Daraja,” presents their positive counterparts. The uneven distribution of tales in favor of those exploring the negative aspects is consistent with the uneven weight given to these aspects in Guzmán's sermons on engaño and honra. Since the multifaceted nature of the negative combinations yield a greater number of variations than the single positive combination, more stories are dedicated to these variations. all novelettes, however, deal with the interdependence of the individual themes. Indeed, this set of themes serves as a common link between the four interpolated stories as well as between the stories as a group and the text as a whole.

Works Cited

Alemán, Mateo. Guzmán de Alfarache. Ed. Benito Brancaforte, 2 vols. Madrid: Cátedra, 1979.

Correa, Gustavo. “El doble aspecto de la honra en el teatro del Siglo XVII.” Hispanic Review 26 (1958): 99-107.

Cros, Edmond. Protée et le gueux: Recherches sur ls origines et la nature du récit picaresque dans Guzmán de Alfarache. Paris: Didier, 1967.

Glickman, Robert J. “Interpolated Material in Guzmán de Alfarache: A Study of its Nature, Use, and Relationship to the Text.” M.A. thesis Brown U. 1951.

Johnson, Carroll B. “D. Álvaro de Luna and the Problem of Impotence in Guzmán de Alfarache.” Journal of Hispanic Philology 8 (1983): 34-47.

McGrady, Donald. Mateo Alemán. New York: Twayne, 1968.

Molho, Maurice. Introduction. Romans picaresque espagnols. Ed. M. Molho and J.-F. Reille. Dijon: Gallimard, 1968.

Ricapito, J. V. “Love and Marriage in Guzmán de Alfarache: An Essay on Literary and Artistic Unity.” Kentucky Romance Quarterly 15 (1968): 123-38.