Henry James, and Marcel Proust, among others. Nussbaum continues this line of argument inPoetic Justice, in which she asserts that studying works of great literature is important to the development of an “ethical stance” which takes into account the experiences of marginalized segments of society. Through examination of such literary classics as Charles Dickens's Hard Times and Richard Wright's Native Son, Nussbaum puts forth the notion of a “literary imagination,” by which readers learn to empathize with individuals whose conditions of life are different from their own. She asserts that this experience of sympathy which novels induce lays the foundation for a “moral/political vision” of social justice. She further suggests that this effect of literature on the reader's notions of social justice makes it crucial reading for those working in the legal profession, particularly judges. In Cultivating Humanity Nussbaum examines current trends of liberal reform in American higher education. She argues in favor of developments such as African American studies, women's studies, and gay/lesbian studies in college and university curricula, asserting that such courses represent a “new education.” She states that the three core values of this new liberal education include critical self-examination, the idea of the world citizen, and the development of narrative imagination. Nussbaum goes on to discuss her findings in observing college courses throughout the United States in order to evaluate the extent to which specific curricula meet her own philosophical standards for “cultivating humanity” in students. Sex and Social Justice comprises fifteen essays in which Nussbaum advocates a “universalist liberal feminism.” In these essays, she explores feminist issues such as pornography, prostitution, the rights of homosexuals, and the conditions of women in the Third World, as well as broader global issues of poverty, legal justice, religious freedom, and the rights of the individual. Nussbaum explains that the five “salient features” of her feminist philosophy are that “it is internationalist, humanist, liberal, concerned with the social shaping of preference and desire, and … concerned with sympathetic understanding.” In the opening essay of Sex and Social Justice, Nussbaum describes her “capabilities” approach to international feminism, which developed out of her work for the United Nations. She identifies central human capacities which must be guaranteed in order to achieve justice for women on an international scale: longevity and bodily integrity; emotional, affective, social, and mental development; the ability to engage in practical reason and to form a conception of the good; the ability to live with concern for animals and the natural world; and control over one's political and material environment. In Upheavals of Thought, a work of over 700 pages, Nussbaum addresses questions about the role of emotion in the development of moral and ethical thinking. She further examines her previously stated assertions that: a) emotions are an expression of important evaluative judgments; b) compassion is central to the formation of an “ethical stance”; and c) literature is crucial to the development of a sense of compassion necessary for making moral and ethical evaluations that encompass the conditions of human life on a global scale. Nussbaum argues that emotions do not run counter to intelligence, but are in fact an important aspect of intelligent decision-making. In Hiding from Humanity she continues her ongoing exploration of the role of emotion in developing a sense of social justice. She argues that the emotions of fear, compassion, and indignation may be used as guidelines for creating a just legal system. However, the emotion of disgust, she contends, should not be used as a basis for legal decisions, because disgust is derived from fantasies of superhuman purity and omnipotence. On this ethical basis, Nussbaum discusses specific ongoing controversial legal issues, such as same-sex marriage and indecent exposure.

Critical Reception

Nussbaum's body of work is widely regarded as an important and original contribution to ethical philosophy and writings on social justice. Many reviewers have expressed admiration for her books, calling them ambitious, insightful, thought-provoking, and persuasive. Critics further praised her erudition in discussing works of ancient literature and philosophy. As Bernard Knox, in a review of The Fragility of Goodness, noted, “This long, intellectually demanding, and richly rewarding book must be almost unique in its expert analysis of both tragic and philosophical texts.” Nussbaum has been widely praised for her eloquent, lucid, and accessible writing style. Thomas Frentz, for example, in a review of The Therapy of Desire, observed that Nussbaum's writing style “fuses argumentative rigor and unabashed feeling into a delicate balance that not only magically draws readers into her world, but also matches perfectly the spirit and temperament of whatever classical text she might be examining.” Others critics, however, questioned the philosophical foundations on which Nussbaum's ideas are based, finding her arguments to be flawed and unconvincing.