spending, and balanced budgets. Due to these constraints, the government could provide limited assistance to the unemployed. The working class, in particular, who were more vulnerable to economic fluctuations, suffered significantly.

The Modern British Woman

During World War I, numerous women joined the workforce previously dominated by men, taking on roles in factories as men went off to war. Millions of British women found employment in government offices, factories, and private enterprises, performing tasks ranging from clerical work to munitions production. These expanded economic opportunities also contributed significantly to women's emancipation. By 1918, the Franchise Act granted voting rights to all women over twenty-eight, while all men over twenty-one received the same right under the law. Soon after, the first British woman took a seat in the House of Commons. However, women did not achieve equal voting rights with men until 1928, with the passing of the Representation of the People Act, commonly known as the "flapper act."

Similar to trends in the United States, young women in Britain embraced new fashion choices that symbolized their newfound freedoms. They opted for shorter skirts and bobbed hairstyles. However, despite these societal changes, most married women still relied on their husbands for support. Women in the workforce were paid less than their male counterparts for the same work and faced limited job opportunities. For example, women were rarely seen in leadership positions in large companies, serving as judges, or holding professorships at universities.

The Modern World

The 1910s were marked by significant technological advancements. Before the outbreak of World War I, telephones were a luxury for the wealthy. By 1918, wall-mounted telephones represented the pinnacle of modern convenience. In the early 1920s, radios began to be widely installed across England. Radio broadcasting kicked off in 1922 and quickly became a favored entertainment medium, alongside the emerging trend of attending talking movies. Additionally, automobiles, which before 1914 were a luxury enjoyed only by the affluent, became increasingly accessible.

Point of View and Narration

“Marriage á la Mode” is mainly narrated from William's perspective, though it shifts to Isabel's viewpoint to deliver the story's final message. The narrative begins with William's thoughts as he boards a train in London. He is preoccupied with buying a present for his children and contemplates his upcoming encounter with Isabel. This introduction clearly establishes that family holds great significance for William. This extended scene can be contrasted with his interaction with Isabel, where the conversation largely centers around her friends. Isabel, in a way, dismisses the children by refusing to give them the fruit William bought for them, opting instead to share it with her friends. Throughout the brief weekend, the story continues to filter through William's perspective, effectively portraying his isolation and alienation within Isabel's social circle.

The conclusion of the story, however, transitions to Isabel's viewpoint. This shift is necessary to achieve the intended ending, as readers need to witness Isabel’s and her friends’ reactions to William’s letter and her subsequent decisions. Isabel's siding with her friends against William signifies the story’s climax. Stylistically, Isabel’s and William’s perspectives mirror Mansfield’s writing style and are quite similar. Both sections refrain from deeply exploring the characters’ thoughts. Instead, Mansfield’s narration highlights the primary concerns and reactions of William and Isabel, depicting each as they proceed with their chosen actions.

Satire

“Marriage á la Mode” satirizes—or uses humor, wit, and ridicule to critique—the pretentious and insincere bohemian art society that Isabel has chosen to engage with. While Mansfield’s story does not make sweeping declarations about this superficial segment of society, her disdain for Isabel and her immature friends is evident. The group communicates with childish outbursts and engages in trivial conversations; the word “childishly” is even used to describe Bobby’s speech. They partake in no meaningful pursuits—it is hinted that Bill is a painter, yet he refuses to paint his friends at the dinner table. They are self-centered and filled with self-importance. Ironically, they are adamant about excluding William from their inner circle, a group he has no desire to join.

Both physically and emotionally, Mansfield portrays them as foolish and absurd. Moira is first seen wearing "a bonnet like a huge strawberry" and hopping up and down, painting a picture for the reader of a giant, bouncing strawberry instead of a woman. Collectively, the friends dismiss conventional adult behavior. It seems none of them have anything more productive to do on a Monday than lounge around at Isabel's house. They all seem perfectly content to rely on Isabel (and consequently William) for support. Bobby is shown as the most childlike among them, with his moods entirely influenced by others. When the candy shop owner chases after him because Bobby forgot to pay for his items, he appears "frightened," but moments later, after Isabel settles the bill, he "was radiant again."

Symbolism and Imagery

In "Marriage á la Mode," Mansfield primarily uses symbols and imagery related to food. William brings home a melon and a pineapple for the children; Moira's hat resembles a strawberry; the day's shopping includes fish and candy; and the friends are depicted devouring a meal at the dinner table. These images, such as Bill "stuffing his mouth with bread," suggest the selfishness of Isabel and her friends—for example, feasting on fruit at the children's expense—as well as their spiritual void. As Isabel notes, "We're all starving. William's starving, too." They are all yearning for something that cannot be satisfied by simply eating a large meal. Although they are unaware, Isabel and her friends lack a sense of purpose or deeper meaning in their lives. In contrast, William longs for the simple life he and Isabel once shared.

Mansfield's fiction is widely acclaimed for its technical mastery, particularly in her subtle use of different perspectives. Although she crafted a few dramatic monologues where characters disclose aspects of their lives by speaking to a silent listener, her most renowned work is exemplified by "Marriage a la Mode." In this third-person narrative, a vaguely present narrator unveils carefully chosen thoughts and perceptions of one or more characters, helping us understand their situations. The narrator does not overtly dictate opinions and judgments to the reader. For example, the reader is not directly informed that Isabel's new friends are not particularly nice or that they are exploiting their hosts, though the story clearly leads the reader to such conclusions. There are exceptions where the narrator expresses judgment, such as noting Bill's rude response to Isabel's suggestion of painting the group at dinner. However, Mansfield primarily relies on implication. We observe the story's characters through William's—and in the final segment, Isabel's—experiences. Consequently, the reader sees not only the actions of other characters but also their negative impact on William and Isabel. These effects are often unspoken, accessible only to William or Isabel and the reader, who acts as a privileged observer.
Narrative theorists sometimes refer to characters whose thoughts are revealed to readers in this manner as "focalizers." In "Marriage a la Mode," William serves as the main focalizer; the story is seen through his perceptions until his return to London on Sunday afternoon. A text break signals the shift to Isabel as the story's other focalizer, whose private thoughts are disclosed for the first time during the final Monday morning scene. The thoughts of other characters like Bobby Kane, Bill Hunt, Dennis Green, and Moira Morrison remain hidden from us. Mansfield's approach to point-of-view significantly influences our experience of the story, particularly in the judgments it encourages regarding the characters and the dramatic situation.

While individual responses to the story may vary, it is likely that William will emerge as the most sympathetic character, followed by Isabel, with the "young poets" not really competing for sympathy. By steering our sympathies in this way, the story invites us to share in William's sorrow over the apparent collapse of a happy marriage while implicitly critiquing the newly embraced "modern" values that have disrupted his and Isabel's relationship.

The intense inner conflict that begins the story unfolds within William's mind as he struggles to come to terms with the changes in Isabel and, consequently, their marriage. At the start, William's dissatisfaction stems not so much from the lengthy commute between London and their new home but rather from feeling out of place upon his arrival. The woman he perceives as "the new Isabel" is a baffling stranger, following cultural norms he hasn't fully understood. The toys he considers buying for their children are dismissed by Isabel as '"dreadfully sentimental' and 'so appallingly bad for the babies' sense of form.'" Moreover, even to the degree that William does comprehend these new rules, he is not in agreement with their principles or objectives. Isabel's direct connection between the discarded traditional toys ("these horrors") and the boys' potential future request to visit the Royal Academy highlights William's reluctance to accept this new way of life: "And she spoke as though a visit to the Royal Academy was certain immediate death to anyone." Despite this, what has kept William going and softened his resistance is his love for his family, especially Isabel, whom he clearly cherishes.

William, as the main perspective through which the story unfolds, shapes our views of himself, Isabel, and her acquaintances. He emerges as a silently suffering husband whose wife has succumbed to the modern ideas of a new social circle. He appears compliant, vulnerable, and self-sacrificing, often keeping his objections to himself and quickly retreating from any he expresses to Isabel. In contrast, Isabel appears superficial and insincere, having swiftly transformed into a "new Isabel" to align with her friends' new social and cultural ideals. She also seems selfish and perhaps even harsh for disregarding William's desires as she forges their new life.

Since the narrative initially unfolds solely from William's perspective, the reader is left unaware of Isabel's side of the story. The London house they left did not meet her needs, but the reader only sees it through William's memories, where he was evidently very content. Additionally, it's unclear what void in Isabel's life was meant to be filled by Moira's vow to "rescue" her from the husband she teasingly calls a "selfish man." Whatever truth about Isabel's previous life with William might be concealed in Moira's words remains undisclosed because William himself is unaware.

In the final part of the story, where Isabel takes center stage, readers are given a chance to see her as a somewhat sympathetic character for the first time. Earlier, when William was getting ready to head back to the city, Isabel's insistence on carrying his heavy suitcase to the gate hinted at a slight sense of regret. She lets out a "little awkward laugh" and looks anxiously down the road while waiting for his taxi. These subtle signs of her unease lead to a flood of self-blame after she reads William's letter aloud to entertain her friends:

Oh, what a loathsome thing to have done. How could she have done it! ... William! Isabel pressed her face into the pillow. But she felt that even the grave bedroom knew her for what she was, shallow, tinkling, vain.

This moment of reflection is brief, and the story suggests that despite her remorse, Isabel will ultimately choose her "young poets" over William. However, within this new Isabel, there seems to be a woman capable of genuine emotion, even if only for a moment.

The same cannot be said for the others. The author portrays them solely through the "shallow, tinkling, vain" personas they display to one another, and through William's view of them as representatives of a confusing modern culture that has created a rift between him and his family. The close connection between the story's antagonists, the trendy art they admire and create, and the growing distance between William and Isabel gives the impression that modern art—as represented by this group—is partly responsible for disrupting William's and possibly Isabel's happiness. Whereas William once found his children's toys stuffed in armchairs, he now discovers "yet another little paper-covered book of smudged looking poems." The poems' lack of substance or value reflects how the story presents the cultural modernity embraced by Isabel and her friends. Isabel's preference for modern art over the traditional toys William likes and the conventional art of the Royal Academy seems more about maintaining appearances than genuinely considering her children's needs or artistic concerns.

The most vivid illustration of the triumph of appearance over reality is evident in the sitting-room wall painting, likely created by Green or Hunt. This artwork, which could easily captivate the heartsick William, depicts a young man presenting a flower to a young woman—an idealized portrayal of youthful romance. However, William scarcely reflects on the painting's theme, as he is too preoccupied with its peculiar form, noting the young man's "very wobbly legs" and the young woman's "one very short arm and one very long, thin one." In the end, the painting leaves no more impression on him than the overall disarray of the room, with its paint-splattered fabrics and ashtrays brimming with cigarette butts. Additionally, the painting doesn't seem to convey any deep understanding or passion from either potential artist about matters of the heart. After all, both men are knowingly involved in the breakdown of William and Isabel's marriage. The disconnect between the artwork and its subject matter is nearly complete.

Mansfield is a writer known for her nuanced storytelling, where readers who pay close attention to the finer details find themselves rewarded. Some of the questions below emphasize specific aspects that merit further thought. As is typical with much of Mansfield's fiction, discussions about this story—its interpretations, the character motivations, and so on—are likely to explore a variety of possibilities without necessarily reaching definitive conclusions. This is the nature of her richly evocative work.

1. What do you believe prompted Isabel to become "the new Isabel"? Does Mansfield illustrate what the allure of her new life might be?

2. Do you find the story's ending satisfying? Why do you think Isabel chooses to return to her friends instead of responding to William's letter?

3. As William's train departs, he observes and quickly judges two figures he briefly sees: a young girl and a workman. What do his observations reveal about him?

4. The children of William and Isabel, Johnny and Paddy, are scarcely present in the story—we neither see them nor hear them speak directly. Why might Mansfield have chosen to keep them at the periphery of the narrative?

5. Is William a wholly sympathetic character, or does he exhibit any unappealing traits? When you examine his characteristics, does Isabel become any more sympathetic?

6. Is there a link between the childish antics of Isabel's friends, Isabel's maternal behavior toward them, and William's perception of himself as "still that little boy" standing beneath the rain-drenched rose bush?

7. In one part of the story, Isabel's friend suggests, "We ought to have a gramophone for the weekends that played The Maid of the Mountains." This reference is to a highly successful Edwardian musical comedy likely still being staged in London at the time the story is set. Briefly, The Maid of the Mountains is about love, betrayal, and reconciliation among mountain bandits: Teresa, the titular maid, is loved by Baldassare, the leader of the thieves. When he becomes smitten with another woman, Teresa betrays him to the authorities, resulting in his imprisonment. Regretting her act of jealousy, she aids his escape, and the lovers are reconciled. Why do you think Mansfield included this reference in her story? (Conducting some research on the operetta may be beneficial here.)

Katherine Mansfield possessed a unique perspective, both insider and outsider, on the social, intellectual, and artistic trends of early Georgian London. Raised in privilege, her father had the means to send her and her sisters from their home in Wellington, New Zealand, to London for their education. Despite this, she faced numerous challenges: a very short and unhappy marriage, the loss of a stillborn child, the death of her cherished brother in World War I, and a prolonged battle with tuberculosis, which ultimately claimed her life in January 1923 at the age of thirty-four.

During the 1910s and early 1920s, as a writer and occasional editor in London, Mansfield was well-connected with the local intellectual elite, including her husband, editor John Middleton Murry, and Leonard and Virginia Woolf. The Woolfs' Hogarth Press published her work Prelude in 1918. However, while the Woolfs were central figures in the esteemed "Bloomsbury Group"—which included notable figures like art critic Roger Fry and economist J. M. Keynes—Mansfield and her husband were often viewed as somewhat lower in social, financial, and cultural standing by the more prestigious circles of Gordon Square.

"Marriage a la Mode" is a direct reflection of this insider/outsider viewpoint. The story's style marks it as distinctly "modern," aligning it with the works of Mansfield's contemporaries, such as Joyce and Lawrence, who were experimenting with literary forms to capture the rapidly evolving world around them. Simultaneously, the story offers a sharply critical portrayal of a group of modern artists and their admirers, depicting them as almost irredeemably superficial, pretentious, self-absorbed, and impolite. Except for the outsider, William, the characters in Mansfield's narrative are consciously "modern," dismissing the remnants of the traditional middle-class world that shaped them, including its art and domestic values. Thus, while the very style of her writing places Mansfield within the modernist movement, the content of "Marriage a la Mode" suggests she perceived modernist circles as filled with snobbery, arrogance, and cruelty.

1920s: London's population is approximately 7.4 million. 1990s: The population of London is roughly 7.0 million.

1920s: New artistic movements such as Cubism, Dadaism, and Surrealism emerge among European painters, significantly impacting other art forms. Cubism emphasizes geometric shapes and designs; Dadaism challenges traditional art norms; and Surrealism explores the unconscious and dreamlike worlds.

1990s: Visual arts expand to include various formats and media, like text and television imagery. Some artists embrace modern technology to create interactive works.

1920s: British women aged twenty-eight and older have been eligible to vote since 1918. However, it is not until 1928 that women achieve voting equality with men.

1980s and 1990s: Women hold significant political roles in Great Britain. Notably, Margaret Thatcher serves as Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990.

1910s and 1920s: The typical British family has three children.

1990s: The average British household has fewer than two children.

1910s: During World War I, only about one-third of native Germans living in Britain choose to stay.

1990s: Around 253,000 immigrants from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa settle in Britain.

Katherine Mansfield's writing is frequently associated with that of Russian short-story author and playwright Anton Chekhov (1860-1904), whose work is often seen as a major influence on her style. There are indeed notable similarities between the two authors. The publication New Age, which began featuring Mansfield's stories in England in 1910, also printed several of Chekhov's pieces. Mansfield's debut story, "The-Child-Who-Was-Tired," was actually an adaptation of an earlier Chekhov work. Like Chekhov, Mansfield prioritizes character development over plot, delving into the emotional and psychological nuances of individuals during pivotal moments in their lives.

Nonetheless, the extent of Chekhov's "influence" on Mansfield's fiction is open to debate. Some critics, including her biographer Anthony Alpers (The Life of Katherine Mansfield, 1980) and critics Clare Hanson and Andrew Gurr (Katherine Mansfield, 1981), argue that the connection has been exaggerated or oversimplified. What is widely acknowledged, however, is that Mansfield's exploration of her characters' inner worlds—alongside those of Chekhov, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and many others—reflects a broader cultural movement known as European "modernism."

Virginia Woolf's description of "modern fiction" in her renowned essay of the same name (TLS, April 10, 1919, under its original title, "Modern Novels") aptly characterizes Mansfield's work, which Woolf was familiar with. Woolf advocates for a shift toward literary impressionism and encourages modern writers (those she favors, at least) to go beyond superficial descriptions, delving into "the very dark places of psychology" in their narratives. This trend in fiction is linked to earlier literary developments, particularly the rise of the symbolist movement in London during the 1890s, represented by figures like Arthur Symons, the young W. B. Yeats, and most famously, Oscar Wilde. The symbols used by symbolist poets, such as the rose in many of Yeats's early poems, served as a means to capture visionary moments, temporarily suspending the flow of daily life to glimpse transcendent truths. These fleeting moments of vision are prevalent throughout the works of Woolf, Joyce (who famously called them "epiphanies"), and Mansfield herself.

Katherine Mansfield released three collections of stories during her brief life. Her first collection, In a German Pension (1911), includes her earliest, often satirical, stories penned during a challenging stay in Bavaria. By the time her second collection, Bliss and Other Stories (1921), was published, she had refined her unique style. Her last collection before her death in January 1923 was The Garden Party and Other Stories (1922). After her passing, her husband, John Middleton Murry, edited and released more of her work, such as The Dove's Nest and Other Stories (1923) and Something Childish and Other Stories (1924), along with excerpts from her journals and letters. A notable collection of her fiction is Selected Stories (1981). To date, a complete compilation of Mansfield's work has not been published.

Mansfield's fictional world often revolves around the early twentieth-century domestic scene, especially the middle-class environment. Readers might compare the characters William and Isabel with other middle-class couples in her stories, like those featured in "The Man Without a Temperament," "Bliss," "Psychology," "Prelude," and its companion "At the Bay," as well as "Mr. and Mrs. Dove," and "A Cup of Tea." Many of her tales also highlight artists and intellectuals, as seen in stories like "Je ne parle pas français," "Feuille d'album," and "Bliss."

Considering the parallels between Mansfield's stories and Anton Chekhov's work, exploring Chekhov's stories is worthwhile. Numerous collections are available, including three volumes translated by Constance Garnett: Early Short Stories, 1883–1888 (1999), Later Short Stories, 1888-1903 (1999), and Longer Short Stories from the Last Decade (2000). Two of Mansfield's contemporaries whose writings are comparable to hers are James Joyce, known for Dubliners (1914), and Virginia Woolf, with works like Jacob's Room (1922), Mrs. Dalloway (1925), and To the Lighthouse (1927).

Sources

Aiken, Conrad. Review of The Garden Party, and Other Stories, featured in Freeman, dated June 21, 1922, on page 357.

Berkman, Sylvia. Katherine Mansfield, A Critical Study, published by Yale University Press in 1951.

Bowen, Elizabeth. Introduction to Stories by Katherine Mansfield, published by Vintage Books in 1956, spanning pages v-xxiv.

Cather, Willa. Not Under Forty, released by Alfred A. Knopf in 1936.

Cowley, Malcolm. Review of The Garden Party, and Other Stories, in Dial, dated August 22, 1922, on page 230.

Daly, Saralyn R. Katherine Mansfield, Revised Edition, published by Twayne Publishers in 1994.

Kobler, J. F. Katherine Mansfield, A Study of the Short Fiction, published by G. K. Hall in 1990.

Laub, D. K. Review of The Garden Party, and Other Stories, in the Detroit News, dated July 16, 1922, on page 7.

Magalaner, Marvin. The Fiction of Katherine Mansfield, published by Southern Illinois University Press in 1971.

Meyers, Jeffrey. Katherine Mansfield, A Biography, published by New Directions Press in 1978.

Murry, John Middleton. Katherine Mansfield and Other Literary Portraits, published by Peter Nevill Ltd. in 1949.

Review of The Garden Party, and Other Stories, in The Nation and the Athenaeum, dated March 25, 1922, on pages 949–950.

Review of The Garden Party, and Other Stories, in The Spectator, dated March 18, 1922, on page 342.

Further Reading

Bell, Quentin. Bloomsbury Recalled, published by Columbia University Press in 1995. This memoir, authored by the son of Vanessa and Clive Bell, members of the Bloomsbury group, recounts the prominent figures involved in that influential circle.

Boddy, Gillian. Katherine Mansfield, The Woman and the Writer, published by Penguin Books in 1988. This comprehensive account of Mansfield’s life features numerous photographs and analyses of her major short stories.

Mansfield, Katherine. The Journal of Katherine Mansfield, edited by John Middleton Murry, published by Ecco Press in 1983. These selections from Mansfield’s journals are edited by her husband.

———, Selected Letters of Katherine Mansfield, edited by Vincent O’Sullivan, published by Clarendon Press in 1989. This collection comprises selected letters written by Mansfield.

———, Selections, Critical Writings of Katherine Mansfield, edited by Clare Hanson, published by St. Martin’s Press in 1987. This collection of Mansfield’s non-fiction includes essays and book reviews.

Tomalin, Claire. Katherine Mansfield, A Secret Life, published by Alfred A. Knopf in 1988. This work is a biography of Mansfield.