María de Zayas
[In the following essay, Fox-Lockert presents an overview of Zayas's life and works from a sociological and feminist viewpoint.]
One of the most important figures among feminine writers, and the first woman novelist, is a Spanish woman of whom relatively little is known. Her identity remains somewhat a mystery, although the critics1 have chosen from several women one who best fits the chronology of her two novels. María de Zayas was born in Madrid in 1590, belonged to the upper class socially and participated in the literary life of the court. Lope de Vega alludes to her as a “clear, lively mind” and a distinguished poet.2 We have no data on her personal life; we do not even know if she was single, married or a widow. Her two works are: Novelas amorosas y ejemplares3 (1637) and Desengaños amorosos4 (1647). If we take Lisis, the protagonist of Desengaños, as the mouthpiece of the author, we might assume that María de Zayas entered a convent after the publication of the novel because nothing else was ever heard of her afterwards. Although the two novels were published in numerous editions for two centuries, no one bothered to document the biography of the author or to verify several points concerning her existence.
The two novels have a similar structure: ladies and gentlemen get together to tell stories, and separating these love stories we find exchanges and interactions among the storytellers. Thus there is both unity and diversity in the narration. The lady of the house, Lisis, gives the themes to those present and these themes become the titles of the two novels: amores (love) for the first and desengaños (disillusion) for the second. There is also continuity among the tales in both novels in that they all have a beginning, suspenseful development, and a resolution to the love affairs. The same characters appear in both novels with the exception of a few which are added to the second one. Both novels take place over a limited number of days, since these people have gathered together in their literary groups at significant dates on the Catholic calendar: during the Christmas season and in the days before Carnival.
In Novelas amorosas the action takes place in Lisis' house on five nights. Men and women alike take their turns in telling a story of love. Lisarda tells “Adventurarse perdiendo,” Matilde “La burlada Aminta y venganza de honor,” Lisis “El desengaño amado y premio de la virtud,” Miguel “Al fín se paga todo,” Lope “El imposible vencido,” Juan “El juez de su causa,” Laura (the mother of Lisis) “El jardín engañoso.” Lisis, the protagonist, is being courted by Don Juan. After a while, he is attracted to Lisarda, one of the ladies present in the group. Lisis, out of spite, accepts the advances of Don Diego. The novel ends when the two protagonists, Lisis and Diego, announce their engagement. Two months later the group returns to the same house. On this occasion Lisis and Diego announce that their wedding will take place on the last day of Carnival. Two new people have joined the group: Estefanía, a nun who is recuperating from an illness, and Isabel. Lisis states that this time only the women will speak on the theme of desengaño and with the express purpose of defending and warning other women of the dangers that await them in various circumstances. The first night Isabel tells the tale “La más infame venganza,” Laura “La inocencia castigada,” Nise “El verdugo por su esposa,” Filis “Tarde llega el desengaño,” Matilde “Amar solo por vencer,” Isabel “Mal presagio casar lejos,” Doña Francisca “El traidor contra su sangre,” Doña Estefanía “La perseguida triunfante,” and on the last night Lisis tells “Engaños que causa el vicio.”
I shall only examine the novel Desengaños by analyzing the position of the author as regards her feminism and I shall put special emphasis on the basic relationships of family, social class and sexuality. The story “La esclava de su amante” presents social conflict. The protagonist, Isabel, is from the upper class and is violated by Manuel, a boy from the lower class. Manuel does so because this is the only way he could have anything to do with her. Isabel is only 14 years old and describes thusly her reaction: “I do not know what has happened to me because the fright caused me to faint. Oh! Weak womankind, intimidated from childhood and weakened because we were taught to make hem-stitches rather than to play at war games” (p. 29). When Manuel abandons her, she follows him to seek vengeance dressed as a man and accompanied by a gentleman friend. When they find Manuel, he insults her because of her bad reputation—of course he admits no responsibility for her dishonor! Nevertheless, they become reconciled and carry on together in several adventures. She is carried off by the Moors and is sold as a slave. Meanwhile, Manuel decides to marry a rich lady and Isabel arranges for her gentleman friend to kill him out of vengeance. She then flees, continues her life as a maid, and thus arrives at the house of Lisis. There she is known as Zelima. Isabel makes known her true identity and begs Lisis to allow her to enter a convent because “in the company of such a Husband … I will no longer feel shame and now that I have had a sad youth, at least I may rest in my old age” (p. 65).
In “La más infame venganza” social and economic differences play an important role in the seduction of a poor girl (Octavia) by a rich man (Carlos). Juan, the brother of Octavia decides to avenge Octavia's dishonor through Camila, Carlos' wife. Armed with a knife, he threatens and then violates her. Camila takes refuge in a convent but her husband makes her come out with promises of pardon. When she returns home, her husband poisons her, but instead of dying she is horribly disfigured. The two men flee, leaving the women to fend for themselves.
In “La inocencia castigada” there are no family or social barriers between Doña Inés and Don Alonso, who are both rich and of the nobility and who are married with the approval of all. A lazy, rich, young man, Don Diego, brings disgrace to the couple. When he finds it impossible to seduce Doña Inés, he obtains the services of a sorcerer who bewitches her. While sleepwalking, she keeps several rendezvous with Don Diego. Her brother finds her and takes her home and he and her husband plot to take vengeance on her and bury her alive. Years later a neighbor hears her cries and with the help of the authorities the crime is uncovered and the guilty punished. Doña Inés enters a convent, having now acquired a reputation of holiness. The narrator concludes that “as far as cruelty is concerned, unfortunate women should trust neither brother nor husband, for all are men” (p. 138).
“El verdugo de su esposa” shows us Pedro and Rosaleta, a married couple, who suffer because Juan, a friend of Pedro, falls in love with Rosaleta. Juan constantly harasses her and she threatens to denounce him to her husband. Juan persists and Pedro plots vengeance, but Juan miraculously escapes. Pedro now becomes enamored of Juan's lover and punishes Rosaleta by bleeding her to death. The narrator puts special emphasis on the fact that whether the wife speaks or remains silent, the husband will take revenge on her whether or not she is innocent. The husband is more interested in the loss of his reputation, and would rather see his wife disappear than to suffer public dishonor.
“Tarde llega el desengaño” has a magnificent introductory discourse in which the narrator expounds on the fact that the fear and envy of men deprive women of education in the arts and in weapons. She concludes that “it would be better for women to use swords than to allow a man to aggravate her at anytime” (p. 177). The protagonist of the story is a rich and noble gentleman who allows his black slave girl to take the place of his wife at the table. He forces his wife to go about on all fours, like a dog, picking up the crumbs that fall from the table. He explains that the reason for his action is that the slave girl has confided to him that his wife has been having an affair with the chaplain of the castle. In the end he discovers that it was only a plot on the part of the slave to gain his favor. The narrator concludes that “women have such a bad reputation these days that neither with suffering can they conquer the hearts of their husbands nor can their innocence be esteemed” (p. 208).
“Amar solo por vencer” offers an interesting case of a man who passes himself off as a woman in order to seduce a woman he is interested in. The author feels that education plays an important role in the making of “effeminate” women: “Men make us more effeminate than Nature, if Nature gives us kind hearts and weakness, at least Nature gave us a soul that can encompass all, just like men” (p. 211). Differences in social class cause Esteban to dress as a maid in the house, for in no other way could he even consider courting Laurela. The other maids notice something wrong and make jokes about “the woman in love with another.” The author takes the opportunity here to digress on the spiritual identity of her characters whose souls “are neither of men nor of women.” Laurela's father arranges a wedding for her with a nobleman. Esteban hurries to uncover his identity, declare his love and seduce her. After he has possessed Laurela, he abandons her, taking all of her jewels. Ashamed, Laurela seeks refuge in her uncle's house. Once again, the men of the family, in this case the father and the uncle, plan to avenge her dishonor: they cause a wall to fall on her which buries her. A maid, witnessing the event, tells Laurela's mother and sisters what has happened. Disillusioned and frightened, the women seek protection together in a convent. The author tries to understand how a lover, after so many professions of his love, could do this thing simply because he has obtained his goal. She believes that Laurela, like any woman, would have believed him and asks: “How can you expect a woman to be good, if you have made her bad and even have taught her to so be?” (p. 254). This is the same argument that Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, a Mexican nun, was to use many years later in her Redondilla, “Foolish men, who accuse. …”5
“Mal presagio casar lejos” presents an interesting use of male homosexuality. This is the woeful tale of four daughters of a noble Spaniard. The oldest was killed when her husband laid a trap for her in which she appeared to be unfaithful. The second was hanged by her own hair because she praised a gentleman who was passing by. The third daughter, who was a witness, jumped from the window so her brother-in-law would not kill her also and was crippled for the rest of her life. The youngest daughter, Blanca, after seeing what happened to her sisters, does not want to take any chances and places the condition that any man who wants to marry her must be well-known to her for at least one year. A prince from Flanders has asked for her hand and accepts Blanca's condition: “To love through familiarity and to know through dealings the condition and graces of the husband” (p. 262). Blanca realizes that interest, convenience and fear play an “important role in matrimony” and prefers to go to a convent if the boyfriend does not satisfy her requirements. Since the boyfriend accepts the betrothal condition, after a year they are married and they travel to Flanders. She takes with her a court of ladies and gentlemen because she is a lady of high social standing. A political element now enters the story since the Spaniards are hated in Flanders. Her husband takes leave of her once they arrive at his palace. His only company there is a 15-year-old page. One day Blanca surprises them together in bed “in such twisted and abominable pleasures that are lowly, not only to say but even to think of” (p. 286). Since she has been a witness, she knows that both of the men will kill her and she prepares to die. First she confesses, then she says goodbye to her ladies, giving them her jewels and telling them what has happened. The husband, page and father-in-law open her veins and she dies. The hatred of the father-in-law toward Spain is well evident when he comments: “How I wish I could have all of her nation as I have her” (p. 290). The narrator comments that beauty, virtue, wisdom, royal blood, and innocence were of no good to the four sisters; all were sacrificed on the “altar of disgrace.” Their wretched star was to “be born women.”
“El traidor contra su sangre” shows the great conflict that exists between the various social classes and the role that money plays in the marriage of both sons and daughters. A rich gentleman has a daughter, Mencia, and a son, Alonso. A rich farmer, Don Enrique, is in love with Mencia, but he is from a lower social class. Alonso, following the desires of his father, kills Mencia because she has been having secret meetings with Don Enrique. In another city, Alonso falls in love with a very beautiful but poor girl, Ana. When his father finds out about Ana, Alonso's father disinherits him. Alonso begins to hate her, “at each step insults her with her poverty” (p. 322) and starves her. Even though they have a son, he kills Ana and demands his father support him as when he killed his sister. The father simply comments: “I would rather have a hanged son than one poorly married” and allows him to be executed.
“La perseguida triunfante” the tale of the nun Estefanía who, due to her little worldly experience (“from a child she consecrated herself to the Bridegroom”), tells the only story that deals with the life of a saint. Ladislao of Hungary marries Beatrice, daughter of the king of England. Federico, brother of Ladislao, is charged with bringing her to Hungary; on the way he falls in love with her. Since Ladislao is away at war, Federico continues to pursue her. She has him put in a lion's cage to stop his advances and then rules the country, “the vassels so content that they do not even miss the king” (p. 356). When Ladislao returns, Federico accuses Beatrice of having “lacivious and impure desires” toward him. Ladislao publicly slaps Beatrice, has her eyes put out and then abandons her in the forest for the wild beasts to eat. A miracle occurs and she is saved. Meanwhile, Federico hires a sorcerer who makes known to him that she is still alive. He goes to the forest to once again try to violate her but she is again miraculously saved. After many years she returns to the court of Hungary, her innocence is proved, and she discovers that her protector was the Virgin Mary. When Ladislao tries to assert his rights as a husband, Beatrice tells him that she already belongs to the Celestial Bridegroom. She asks permission to found a convent and retire along with those ladies who wish to follow her. The narrator reflects that even a woman so virtuous as this has to suffer “the treachery and cruelty of man” (p. 409).
“Engaños que causa el vicio” is the story of two girls raised as sisters. When the parents die, the girls go to live with their aunt and uncle. Although they love the girls, the aunt and uncle will not allow them to marry in order that they might keep the girls' dowries for themselves. In spite of this, Magdalena marries Dionis and takes Florentina to live with them. Unfortunately, the sister falls in love with Dionis and they have an affair for four years. She incites Dionis to kill his wife, but the husband goes crazy and kills all the women in the house, including the maids. Only Florentina escapes, badly wounded, and she enters a convent to expiate her deeds. The author here shows us the situation of a sister who turns on her own sister and the message is obvious: women should not become divided and should at all costs remain united. As it is Lisis who is telling this story, she remembers the fickleness of Lisarda, but she also reminds the men that when it comes to satisfying their desires, they never pass up an opportunity. Lisis wants “to defend all women and correct all men,” but since men are the natural enemies of women, there is no alternative but “war.” At the end of her story, Lisis reveals her intention not to marry Don Diego as she had announced at the beginning, she does not wish to take part in that battle which so many women have lost. She affirms that “we need to take arms and defend ourselves from their evil intentions and from our enemies” (p. 460).
In all of the narrations the man is the executioner and the woman his victim. From the story told by Lisis we can observe that a man, such as Dionis, may be educated and seem to be noble and honorable, yet he kills women. There is the constant threat of war between the sexes. Lisis insists that the women tell the stories in order to reflect their point of view, because “since men are those who preside, they never tell the evil they do, but rather speak of the evil done to them, and if you look closely, the men are at fault and the women follow the men's opinion since they believe the men are right; the most obvious thing is that there are no bad women, only evil men” (p. 10).
Within the social framework of this period, women occupied a place superior only to that of animals and crazy people. Even if she belonged to the higher classes, this only imposed certain dress standards and added more limitations. Within the family, the woman was a possession that could be given, exchanged or done away with according to the circumstances. Honor was so fundamental in the Spanish system that it could be besmirched by simple indiscretion and as Lope de Vega put it, “Honor is that which comes from another. No man gains honor by himself.” Especially with respect to the woman, the social system was organized to strictly watch over feminine conduct. The father, brother and husband were those empowered to carry out retribution. One aspect of the work of Zayas that is new and different is that she denounces many of the situations that masculine writers tried to hide: crimes and hatred toward women. Even when the man found out that the woman was innocent, he saw to it that she disappeared because she was a witness to his dishonor and humiliation. The husband could easily find ways of doing away with his wife without interference from the authorities and it seems that family conspiracies were common, with the men as accomplices and the women as victims. Another aspect of her work is the latent homosexuality exhibited by the men. Men also seem to transfer their repressed sexual desires into action against the wives of their friends or against their own sisters.
Education, according to the author, is one of the principal forms of repression. This masculine system kept the woman ignorant and apart. The author mentions various examples of what women learn and which in no way prepares them for the dangers they face nor allows them to realize the full potential of their intelligence. She insists many times that the soul is neither masculine nor feminine and thus places emphasis on the equality of men and women. Several of her protagonists show themselves to be fearless as they follow those men who abandoned them. In other cases, women make the decision to retreat from the world, for many this is the immediate alternative of escape from the slavery of men. There are many other women, however, who prefer the convent because it signifies “Holy Sanctuary,” from which no one could remove them because of the religious laws. Education does not prepare women to earn a living and they must depend on their families unless they marry. In the convent they at least find a number of tasks that allow them to justify their existence. Zayas also notices that girls who are raised in the great houses—she is speaking of the higher social classes—by their relatives or maids are ignorant of what goes on outside the four walls of their home and thus are easy prey of the tricks of men. There is a definite purpose to Zayas' novel: to warn all women of the things that happen in the relationship between the sexes. She offers many examples of women who have been queens or wise governors when they had the opportunity. She definitely believes that women must stop thinking of themselves as weak and evil, as taught by masculine indoctrination. She tries to induce women to analyze the simple examples she presents and to begin to see the causes and effects of the actions of both sexes. She believes that it is possible for women to begin to reason for themselves without recourse to masculine teachings, which only create a poor and defective vision of themselves.
The sexuality Zayas discusses is principally that of the youth of the higher classes, which she knows very well. The male children are sent to religious schools and the girls remain at home where, following Arabic customs, they are given room to roam about in without being seen by strangers—thus there is little filial affection between the two. The girls generally find out that some gentleman is in love with them through the maids. And the gentlemen, using the menservants who in turn use the maids, then establish contact. Women thus receive a false idea of love. Courtly love predominates and the men, who are well-versed in this art, go through the rituals in order to convince the victim of their devotion. Laziness, wealth and great freedom in the young men help them convert this art of love into a favorite pastime. The man wants to make as many conquests as possible and he has no interest in remaining with any woman who has given herself to him. In Spain, predominantly, the Arab has reinforced the double standard: the man may have many wives but the woman must remain absolutely faithful. Once the man becomes infatuated with a woman, he throws himself into the conquest like the soldier who lays siege to a city, but after satisfying his sexual desires, he loses interest; “after sex all animals are sad.” The women, on the other hand, live in their gardens dreaming of love and of being loved. When a gentleman presents himself, they reject him if they are virtuous. Many times they are convinced that this gentleman truly loves them and they take the risk, knowing that they may sacrifice their honor and expose themselves to the scorn and vengeance of their families. This risk freely taken reveals, according to the author, the superiority of women in that their desires are not sensual but spiritual and thus can remain strong even after men have defrauded them.
Marriage appears to be something arranged out of convenience by the families. The women must have a dowry in order to attract candidates from the same social class. She never really knows her future husband until after the wedding, when she begins to discover a world much different from that of courtly love. Now she is a recluse in the house, allowed only to go to Church or to go visiting with her husband. Danger is ever present, especially if she is young and beautiful, for other men will try and court her, placing her reputation in danger. We must assume that while she must be prudent, she is never free from the chance that some man might take advantage of her. Zayas reveals another aspect of feminine sexuality that male writers of this period never discuss: the terror of the woman when faced by masculine violence, a crime which is viewed by the author without mercy. But the woman also suffers when her boyfriend or husband is unfaithful; this pain is exceptionally well captured by the author. The woman needs to believe that her lover will not fool her and when all fails, she has no other recourse but Jesus. Many women enter the convent “seeking perfect love from the Bridegroom who never fails.” But even here we find masculine indoctrination concerning honor. Santa Teresa, in her Relaciones espirituales,6 says that when Christ appeared to her in visions he told her: “See this nail, it is a sign that you will be my bride from this day forth; until today you did not merit it; from now on you will watch out for me as Creator, King, God, and you will also guard my honor.”
Lisis, the voice of the author, is the most militant of the group. She sees the situation as a “cold war” between the sexes, which are in continual battle. Men have their own code and work together against women. Historically, the thesis that woman is superior to man in the telling of lies, working of intrigues and the playing of tricks has been perpetuated. Thus man always has had little confidence in his wife, even if she is virtuous. The author does not believe that a single woman like Lisis can fight the whole system by herself. Her mission is to proceed to gather the women together so that, united for a common cause, they may protect their virtue and individual integrity. Following the system, Lisis and those that follow her retire to a convent. Many years later, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, the Mexican nun, explained her decision to enter the convent: “It was the least abnormal and most decent way I could assure myself of the salvation my soul longed for.” Ascetic retreat in the Catholic Church represents a decisive move for the woman—she either thus rejects society or has herself been rejected. It is difficult to imagine the convent as the last stronghold of feminine nonconformity; paradoxically it is also their means of spiritual vindication. While men writers have never bothered to consider why women enter convents, Zayas has given us a full spectrum of cases which allow us to visualize all the social abuses heaped upon women. We often believe that fathers force their daughters to go to the convent in order to hide their shame and disobedience.
Zayas shows us that the fathers and brothers in no way understand either their wives or those women in their custody; they act according to specific conventions which cause them to lose sight of feminine sensitivity. Perhaps victims and executioners are a product of society motivated by honor and love. If the man kills for honor, the woman dies for love. He spends his life looking for conquests while she imagines a place of pure love. He believes himself free and is a slave to his own mistrust. She believes herself to be a slave and yet within her spirit she has found the path that not only will make her free but that will also bring her eternal love.
Notes
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Manuel Serrano y Sanz, Apuntes para una biblioteca de autoras españolas (Madrid: n.p., 1903), vol. II, pp. 583-586.
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Quoted by Edwin Place in “Maria de Zayas, an Outstanding Woman Short-Story Writer of Seventeenth Century Spain,” University of Colorado Studies XIII, (1923), 26-30.
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María de Zayas, Novelas amorosas y ejemplares (Madrid: Aldus, 1948). In this edition there is a long introduction written by Augustín de Amezua.
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María de Zayas, Disegnaños amorosos (Madrid: Aldus, 1950). Page references for quotations in the text are to this edition.
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Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Obras completas de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, edited by Alfonso Mendez Plancarte (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1951). Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz is a Mexican poet who lived in Colonial times (1748-1695).
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Helmut Hatzfeld, in Estudios literarios sobre mística española (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1968), devotes several chapters to women in Spain and their religious convictions.
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