Biography
Marco Polo's remarkable journeys across Asia and his writings about them played a pivotal role in fostering intercultural exchanges during the medieval era. His accounts broadened Western awareness of distant lands and laid the groundwork for the age of exploration. Today, his legacy continues to captivate the imagination, symbolizing the spirit of adventure and discovery.
Early Life
While Marco Polo is widely celebrated, details about his personal life remain scarce. Born into a prominent Venetian family of merchants, Marco lived during a time when Venice was at its zenith as a city-state, coinciding with the Mongol Empire's vast expansion across Asia. Under Kublai Khan's rule, the Mongol Empire extended from China to Russia and the Levant, instilling fear across Europe with its relentless military campaigns. Although ruthless, the Mongols established stability in their domains, facilitating trade routes like the Silk Road. Realizing that taxing people was more lucrative than conquering them, they encouraged commerce to flourish.
In this favorable environment, European traders ventured into the East, including Marco Polo's family. The Polos had established connections in the Levant and the Black Sea region, owning property in Constantinople and maintaining a presence in Crimea. Around 1260, Marco's father, Niccolò, and his uncle, Maffeo, embarked on a trading journey into Mongol territories, reaching the land of the Golden Horde (Russia), governed by Berke Khan. When conflict erupted, blocking their return, they proceeded to Bukhara, meeting an envoy who invited them to visit Kublai Khan's court in Cathay (modern China). Kublai Khan welcomed them warmly, appointed them emissaries to the pope, and tasked them with returning to Cathay with learned men to educate the Mongols in Christianity and the liberal arts.
In 1269, Niccolò and Maffeo finally returned to Venice, only to find that Niccolò's wife had passed away during their absence. Marco, then about fifteen, had grown up mostly under the care of his mother and extended family. With the death of his mother, Marco might have felt like an orphan, only to be reunited with his father and uncle, who reappeared after years of adventure in distant lands. These experiences shaped Marco's character, nurturing his sensitivity and resilience, independence and loyalty, and his love for stories and adventure.
Life’s Work
At the age of seventeen, Marco Polo set out with his father and uncle for Kublai Khan's court. Their journey was delayed due to the death of Pope Clement IV, allowing Marco to mature and soak in the tales of his family's travels. Instead of the one hundred scholars requested by Kublai Khan, they were accompanied by two Dominican friars, who soon retreated due to regional conflicts. Despite this, Marco emerged as an embodiment of European culture on the cusp of the Renaissance. Kublai Khan's curiosity about "Latins" and the absence of numerous learned Europeans ensured Marco stood out.
During the three-and-a-half-year journey to the khan’s court, Marco received an unparalleled education. Traversing rugged terrains, including the Pamirs and the Gobi Desert, they encountered wild animals, bandits, and diverse cultures. Marco, particularly charmed by the local women, took interest in the customs, cuisines, and beliefs of the lands they crossed. With Kublai Khan's protection, the Polos observed the Islamic world closely, a rare opportunity for European Christians. By the time they reached Khanbalik (modern Beijing), Marco was a seasoned traveler, well-versed in the ways of the world and languages, including Mongol, Turkish, and Persian.
Welcomed warmly at Kublai Khan's court, the Polos, if Marco's account holds true, became favorites of the khan. Marco was entrusted with significant missions, earning the khan’s confidence. The khan's practice of appointing foreigners to administrative roles...
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made Marco's appointment as an emissary plausible. His successful reports, rich in detail and trivia, solidified his role further. Marco's travels, covering vast regions of China and a sea voyage to India, underscore the trust the khan placed in him.
The Polos spent seventeen years under Kublai Khan's patronage, a testament to their valued status. While Marco carried out missions, his father and uncle continued trading. Their extended stay, without returning home, was partly due to the khan's high regard for them. However, as the khan aged, they feared the uncertainty of their future. When a Mongol princess needed escorting to Persia, the Polos seized the chance to leave. They journeyed with a large fleet and a wedding party, surviving a near two-year voyage, and successfully delivered the princess to her intended husband.
From Persia, the Polos journeyed back to Venice, arriving in 1295 with their wealth, despite being robbed in Christian territories. Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an early editor of Marco’s book, describes their dramatic return, initially unrecognized by relatives due to their ragged appearance. It was only during a homecoming feast, where they revealed hidden jewels, that they were welcomed back with astonishment and joy.
Legacy
Fate intervened once more in Marco's life when he found himself imprisoned in Genoa following a naval skirmish with the Genoese. During his incarceration, he met Rustichello, a writer of romances, to whom he narrated his Asian adventures. Rustichello captured Marco’s experiences in a manuscript, using the Italianized Old French common in medieval romances.
The manuscript quickly circulated, gaining popularity across Europe. Despite the absence of a printing press, numerous copies and translations emerged, some altered by religious scribes wary of the khan's religious tolerance. This editorial meddling may explain the Christian miracle emphasis and anti-Muslim bias in the text. Despite these alterations, modern scholars recognize the work’s accuracy, making it an invaluable source of medieval Asian knowledge and influencing explorers like Christopher Columbus.
The book, known as Il milione or The Travels of Marco Polo, left an indelible mark on the Western world. Its accounts, comparable to science fiction for contemporary readers, inspired plays, novels, and films, and fueled scholarly debates about Marco's life. Yet, Marco's intentions have often been misconstrued. Rather than serving as a harbinger of Western conquest, his journeys exemplified a brief era of East-West dialogue and exchange.
Bibliography
Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities. Translated by William Weaver. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974. This postmodernist novel by one of Italy’s leading writers imagines conversations between Marco Polo and Kublai Khan, with descriptions of fictitious cities.
Li Man Kin. Marco Polo in China. Hong Kong: Kingsway International Publications, 1981. A speculative work from a non-Western perspective, noteworthy for its illustrations, despite weak writing and editing.
Olschki, Leonardo. Marco Polo’s Asia: An Introduction to His “Description of the World” Called “Il milione.” Translated by John A. Scott. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960. A comprehensive scholarly introduction discussing the book’s treatment of various topics.
Polo, Marco. The Travels of Marco Polo. Translated by Ronald Latham. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1958. The best English translation based on modern scholarship, featuring a concise introduction by the translator.
Power, Eileen. “Marco Polo: A Venetian Traveler of the Thirteenth Century.” In Medieval People. 10th ed. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1963. A vividly written account of Marco’s travels, enriched with descriptions from other European travelers who visited Asia.