Kobo represent a considerable departure from the writing of almost all the Japanese novelists and dramatists who preceded him.’’

Effects of World War II

Hiroshima suffered the loss of over 200,000 people when the atomic bomb was dropped on August 6, 1945. Three days later, another 70,000 lives were lost when a second atomic bomb hit Nagasaki. These events signified more than just the end of the war; they marked the people of Japan as vulnerable victims, both physically, due to radiation burns from the bombs, and psychologically, with the realization of their own mortality.

In addition to the destruction caused by the bombs, Japan fell under the cultural and economic influence of the United States. Western culture permeated Japan, leading the younger generation, including Abe and his contemporaries, to drift away from traditional Japanese customs and embrace the new, more individualistic Western ideals. Along with Western influence came feelings of alienation, a quest for self-identity, and the sensation of living an inauthentic life—concepts that were foreign to traditional Japanese culture. After World War II, the experience of cultural dislocation and identity issues were explored by a new wave of leftist writers like Abe, who employed narrative and dramatic techniques derived from Western modernism.

Abe's formative years spent in the stark, war-torn deserts of Manchuria, his medical background, and living in a bomb-damaged area of Tokyo have all shaped his worldview, influencing how he writes and develops his plays. Unlike many of Japan’s renowned authors, as well as some of his peers, Abe presents images that are urban, bleak, and somewhat skeptical of traditional Japanese society.

Much like a surgeon maintaining professional distance from patients, Abe detaches himself from the emotions of his characters, often to the extent of not giving them personal names. Although he spent most of his adult life in Japan, his plays lack specific settings—they are vague and could take place anywhere globally. In this regard, J. Thomas Rimer, writing in the Dictionary of Literary Biography, likens Abe’s style to that of Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, who was also trained as a doctor.

Abe’s writing style has been described in numerous ways. It has been termed avant-garde, referring to the alienated characters he crafted who are continuously searching for meaning in an apparently indifferent world. His works have also been categorized as science fiction, due to his creation of futuristic settings that tackle contemporary issues. Early in his career, Abe was captivated by the promises of Marxist philosophy, infusing his work with a propagandist tone. His novels and plays feature absurd or surreal elements, creating hallucinatory, dreamlike images. He has also been called an existentialist, with his works displaying, as Rimer notes, "an ironic questioning of all established values."

A prominent feature in Abe’s work is the use of metaphor. Nearly all of his narratives revolve around a single metaphor and, as William Currie describes, "are developed with a kind of dream literalism." Abe presents metaphors in somewhat realistic terms, but as the play progresses, the only thing that holds everything together is a sense of the irrational. "I [Abe] tend instinctively, in a sense, to make the ordinary the starting point of all my thoughts. But at the same time, I dislike that as well, so I create monsters, to surprise."

In an interview with Shields, Abe notes his appreciation for Anton Chekhov, stating that Chekhov's plays are "satisfying as literature" and can be appreciated even without a live performance. However, Abe suggests this is not the case for his own plays. He says, "I write novels, so I have the means of expressing what can be expressed in novels. I want to express on the stage something which is at once original and can only be expressed on the stage." To achieve this, Abe incorporated elements into his plays that could only be experienced during a live performance. These additions were designed not only to enrich the live experience but also to surprise the audience. This often included sounds like someone using the bathroom or a stomach gurgling. "Smells, too, are significant in Abe’s oeuvre," Shields writes, "and tend to be disgusting."

Abe's style is challenging and his plays resemble complex puzzles or dreams that defy full understanding. His philosophy of drama was not about depicting everyday scenarios to entertain. Instead, his goal was to provoke thought in his audiences. "Unless the theater regains the power to realize on stage those more abstract things which are impossible to see in everyday reality," Abe explains to Shields, "audiences will find theatrical productions more and more boring." He further discusses this in an afterword to the published script of one of his plays, stating, "In performance it is essential that the style, rather than the words, be emphasized."

Early 1900s: Korean, Russian, and Japanese troops engage in a series of conflicts over Manchuria. In the years leading up to World War II, Japan seizes military control of the region, transforming Manchuria into the most industrialized part of mainland China.

Middle 1900s: After World War II, Japan relinquishes its claim to Manchuria. Chinese Communist forces gain control of the area as Russia poses a threat of invasion.

Today: China's interest in Manchuria diminishes, leading to significant unemployment due to stagnation in state-run industries.

Early 1900s: Japan's economy heavily relies on textile production. As imperial ambitions grow, the economy strengthens further with the production of heavy military machinery.

Middle 1900s: Following the collapse of its economy due to its defeat in World War II, Japan reemerges as a leading industrial nation, producing machinery, automobiles, and steel.

Today: Japan is the most industrialized nation in Asia and ranks as the second-largest economic power globally, behind only the United States. Its economy is now centered on technological products, including electric and electronic appliances.

Early 1900s: Expressionist playwrights such as Karel Capek from Czechoslovakia and Eugene O’Neill from the U.S.A. influence global dramatists with their use of minimal sets, talking machines, and archetypal characters to highlight the dehumanizing effects of a technological society.

Middle 1900s: The Theatre of the Absurd captures a pervasive sense of life's meaninglessness through the works of dramatists like Samuel Beckett from Ireland, Eugene Ionesco from France, and Edward Albee from the U.S.A., influencing many young playwrights worldwide.

Today: Contemporary plays tend to explore realistic themes such as gay lifestyles, multicultural interests, reflections on Holocaust and Hiroshima survivors and their descendants, the political struggles of Apartheid, the impact of AIDS, and cultural tensions in post-colonial societies.

While Abe's play The Man Who Turned into a Stick was never adapted into a film, several of his other works were. Abe himself wrote the screenplays for these films, all of which were directed by Hiroshi Teshigahara. One of these films, The Woman in the Dunes (1964), won a special jury prize at the Cannes Film Festival. Another of his works, Face of Another, was produced in 1966, and The Ruined Map was adapted in 1968 as The Man without a Map. The Woman in the Dunes is available on videocassette.

Sources

Abe, Kobo, The Man Who Turned into a Stick: Three Related Plays, translated by Donald Keene, University of Tokyo Press, 1975.

Currie, William, ‘‘Abe Kobo’s Nightmare World of Sand,’’ in Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel, edited by Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E. Swann, Sophia University, 1976, pp. 1–3.

Iwamoto, Yoskio, Review of Kangaroo Notebook, in World Literature Today, Winter 1997.

Keene, Donald, Introduction, in The Man Who Turned into a Stick: Three Related Plays, translated by Donald Keene, University of Tokyo, 1975, pp. vi–x.

Rimer, J. Thomas, ‘‘Abe Kobo,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 182: Japanese Fiction Writers Since World War II, Gale Research, 1997, pp. 3–10.

Rimer, J. Thomas, ‘‘Tradition and Contemporary Consciousness,’’ in Modern Japanese Fiction and Its Traditions: An Introduction, Princeton University Press, 1978, pp. 261–65. Shields, Nancy K., Fake Fish, Weatherhill, Inc., 1996.

Further Reading

Goodman, David G., trans. and ed., After Apocalypse: Four Japanese Plays of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Cornell University Press, 1994 (reprint). This is a collection of contemporary Japanese plays that delve into the spiritual, political, and ethical dilemmas faced by many Japanese in the postwar period.

Iles, Timothy, Abe Kobo: An Exploration of His Prose, Drama and Theatre, European Press Academic Publishing, 2000. This is among the few English-language books entirely devoted to Abe’s work. Iles provides a thorough analysis, interpretation, and critique of Abe’s narratives and theatrical pieces.

Keene, Donald, Dawn to the West: Japanese Literature of the Modern Era, Columbia University Press, 1984. Authored by a renowned scholar and translator of Abe’s works, this book offers a detailed examination of Japanese literature, including its drama. Keene has translated works from many prominent modern Japanese authors.

Mishima, Yukio, Five Modern Noh Plays, Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1981. Utilizing the classical Noh play format, Mishima, an acclaimed novelist, addresses contemporary existential themes. Many viewers find that Mishima’s plays leave a lasting impression long after experiencing them.

Takaya, Ted T., ed., Modern Japanese Drama: An Anthology, Columbia University Press, 1979. This anthology provides an overview of modern Japanese dramas written and staged during Abe’s era. It features works by Abe, Yukio Mishima, and other contemporary Japanese playwrights.