Historical Context
The Emergence of a Cultural Renaissance
In 1967, Silko penned the evocative tale "The Man to Send Rain Clouds" during a creative writing course, drawing inspiration from a true event in Laguna, New Mexico. The late 1960s marked a time when America turned its gaze towards indigenous cultures with renewed curiosity. Native Americans began migrating off reservations, stepping into the broader tapestry of American society, thus becoming more prominent. Peter Farb's work, Man's Rise to Civilization (1968), captured the public's imagination, igniting interest in Native American history. Meanwhile, Scott Momaday, himself a Native American, garnered acclaim by clinching the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for fiction with his novel, House Made of Dawn. Silko recalls, "It was a kind of renaissance, I suppose ... It is difficult to pinpoint why but, perhaps, in the 1960s, around the time when Momaday's books got published, there was this new interest, maybe it was not new, but people became more aware of indigenous cultures. It was an opening up worldwide." Authors from indigenous backgrounds began publishing prolifically, with Silko emerging as one of the first Pueblo women to receive widespread recognition.
Life and Belief on the Laguna Reservation
The narrative paints a vivid picture of daily existence on the Laguna Indian Reservation in the 1960s. For over 12,000 years, the Pueblo people had thrived in this region, their traditional spiritual beliefs intricately woven into the fabric of everyday life. The arrival of Christianity did not replace these age-old customs; rather, it was seamlessly integrated into existing Pueblo ceremonies. Scholar A. LaVonne Ruoff observes, "Silko emphasizes that these Pueblo Indians have not abandoned their old ways for Catholicism; instead, they have taken one part of Catholic ritual compatible with their beliefs and made it an essential part of their ceremony." At the heart of Silko's story is the "instance of cultural clash with the feelings and ideas involved," capturing the delicate interplay between contrasting traditions.
The Story's Reflection on Mortality and Unity
Delving into the rituals depicted in the story, we uncover the Pueblo understanding of death. Per Seyersted notes that, for the Indians, "man is a minute part of an immense natural cycle, and his death has nothing threatening in it because, after a life which contained both the good and the bad he goes back to where he came from, and in line with the communal thinking, it is hoped that his spirit will help the group he leaves behind by returning with the rain clouds." This perspective underscores a profound acceptance of mortality, as well as a hope for the spirit's continued contribution to the community's well-being, symbolized by the life-giving rain clouds.
Style and Technique
Point of View
The tale unfurls through the lens of an impartial, third-person narrator, maintaining a strictly detached tone. The storyteller's own voice remains a mystery, as the characters are depicted without personal bias. Apart from the climactic graveyard scene, where a glimpse into the characters' inner worlds is hinted at, the narrative reveals only the unfolding events, leaving thoughts and emotions to the imagination.
Setting
The narrative finds its roots in the Laguna Indian Reservation, nestled within the remarkable landscapes of New Mexico. The setting, with its arroyos and towering mesas, becomes a character in itself, intricately woven into the fabric of the tale. Silko paints this backdrop with masterful strokes, capturing its essence vividly. Consider the imagery: "A solitary cottonwood tree stands boldly apart from a cluster of winter-bare cottonweeds in the expansive sandy arroyo... Leon lingers beneath the tree as Ken navigates the truck through the deep sand towards the arroyo's edge... To the northwest, the blue mountains remain shrouded in snow......
(This entire section contains 660 words.)
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The air grows brisker as the wind sweeps gray dust along the narrow pueblo road. The sun inches closer to the long mesa, where it vanishes during the winter months."
Allusions
"The Man to Send Rain Clouds" is a title steeped in cultural significance, nodding to the Pueblo belief that spirits of the departed are entwined with rain clouds. The narrative is rich with references to traditional Indian burial rites and the storied history of the Pueblo people. The title itself echoes a sacred prayer, where the community beseeches the departed's spirit to bring rain clouds, ensuring their crops flourish and fend off hunger. In Pueblo tradition, death marks a transition rather than an end, as the human spirit returns to its origins, aiding the living by summoning rain clouds. Rituals include painting the deceased's face for recognition in the afterlife, and scattering corn with water to nourish the spirit on its otherworldly journey. The mention of the Catholic church's "twin bells from the King of Spain" underscores the historical encounter between the Pueblo and Christianity. In 1598, as the Pueblo pledged allegiance to the Spanish crown, Catholic missionaries endeavored to convert them, yet the Pueblo steadfastly preserved their ancestral beliefs.
Humor
Silko deftly wields humor as a subtle yet potent instrument. The interaction between a novice priest, longing to conduct Catholic rites, and Leon, who dismisses their necessity, is laced with gentle comedy. This humorous exchange also highlights the underlying cultural tension. One example unfolds as follows: "The priest approached the grave with deliberate steps... His gaze fell on the red blanket, doubt creeping in—was it a mischievous Indian ruse, a ceremonial act to invoke a bountiful harvest? He wondered if old Teofilo might be at the sheep camp, tending his flock. Yet there the priest stood, facing a biting wind and squinting at the sun's fading light, ready to inter a red woolen blanket while his parishioners, shadowed in the sun's last warmth, looked on."
Description
Silko's narrative sparkles with vivid descriptions and meticulous attention to detail, hallmarks of her literary style. In "The Man to Send Rain Clouds," she employs phrases such as "wide, sandy arroyo," "low, crumbling wall," "brown, wrinkled forehead," and "He squinted up at the sun and unzipped his jacket" to enrich her storytelling and draw readers into the scene.
Irony
Irony, the art of expressing meanings opposite to their literal sense, is elegantly woven into Silko's narrative. She showcases irony with finesse, particularly in her portrayal of the young priest. As an authority figure intent on guiding the Indians towards Catholicism, he ultimately embraces a symbolic gesture by using holy water in an indigenous ceremony, thus participating in a non-Christian ritual.
Dialogue
Silko artfully blends narrative with dialogue, creating a tapestry where character interactions unravel their essence. Conversations between Leon and Father Paul, and between Leon and Louise, invite readers to step into the shoes of each character, piecing together their motivations and personalities through their spoken words.
Compare and Contrast
1960s: In a decade marked by fervent activism, minorities including African Americans, Native Americans, and the Gay community rise up to challenge entrenched systems. Their struggles blaze with the desire for equality under U.S. law. Women, too, engage in a determined quest for equal opportunities. These battles sometimes ignite into violent clashes, while a national discourse on racial and sexual discrimination captures the zeitgeist.
1990s: By the '90s, the landscape shifts as affirmative action for various minority groups faces repeal in certain regions. Legislative protections come under siege, and Congress stalls on passing a federal statute for hate crimes, leaving marginalized communities at risk.
1960s: As the cultural climate changes, Native American voices begin to resound, sharing their unique narratives with the world. Visionary authors like Leslie Marmon Silko find success and recognition, becoming celebrated figures in American literature and reshaping the literary landscape.
1990s: The '90s see a continuation of rich contributions from Native American writers, who offer profound insights into the American experience. Their works gain a foothold in academia, with Native American literature and culture becoming integral to university studies across the nation.
Adaptations
While "The Man to Send Rain Clouds" has yet to find its form in a multimedia adaptation, the videotape Running on the Edge of the Rainbow: Laguna Stories and Poems (1979) provides an intimate glimpse into Silko's literary world. It features engaging readings from her works, accompanied by her insightful reflections on the rich tapestry of Pueblo culture in Laguna, New Mexico.
Bibliography
Sources
Danielson, Linda L., ‘‘Storyteller: Grandmother Spider's Web,’’ in Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 30, No. 3, Autumn, 1988, pp. 325-55.
Krupet, Arnold, ‘‘The Dialogic of Silko's Storyteller,’’ in Narrative Chance, edited by Gerald Vizenor, University of New Mexico, 1989, pp. 55-68.
Ruoff, A. LaVonne, ‘‘Ritual and Renewal: Keres Traditions in the Short Fiction of Leslie Silko,’’ in MELUS, Vol. 5, No. 4, Winter, 1978, pp. 2-17.
Seyersted, Per, Leslie Marmon Silko, Boise State University, 1980.
Silko, Leslie Marmon, Ceremony,/i>, New York: Viking Press, 1977.
----Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit, Simon and Schuster, 1996.
Further Reading
Danielson, Linda L., ‘‘Storyteller: Grandmother Spider's Web,’’ in
Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 30, No. 3, Autumn, 1988, pp.
325-55.
An interpretation of Silko's ‘‘The Man to Send Rainclouds,’’ particularly with
regard to themes of creativity and community, analyzed from a feminist
perspective.
Ruoff, A. LaVonne, ‘‘Ritual and Renewal: Keres Traditions in the Short
Fiction of Leslie Silko,’’ in MELUS, Vol. 5, No. 4, Winter, 1978, pp.
2-17.
An analysis of the traditions at work in Silko's work, suggesting on pp. 2-5
that the story provides an example of the strength of tribal traditions through
adaptability.
Seyersted, Per, Leslie Marmon Silko, Boise State University,
1980.
Addresses Silko's biography, and provides a brief history of the Pueblo people
and an analysis of Silko's works, in particular a study of the theme of culture
clash in ‘‘The Man to Send Rain Clouds’’ on pp. 15-18.