Mama Day
In the rich tapestry of African American culture, fables and legends featuring heroic figures have long served as beacons of hope and inspiration during the dark eras of slavery and discrimination. These mythic figures have evolved from oral traditions into novels by acclaimed black writers such as Toni Morrison and David Bradley. Gloria Naylor's Mama Day stands out as a significant contribution to this tradition, presenting an intriguing character at the heart of a multifaceted narrative that explores the interplay between the isolated world of a self-contained black community and the broader, interconnected American society.
The Enclave of Willow Springs
Naylor introduces readers to Willow Springs, a unique island community that has chosen to distance itself from the political domain of the United States. Situated between Georgia and South Carolina, this island has eluded the oppressive shadows of segregation and the materialistic corruption of late twentieth-century American society. It is an idyllic haven, akin to an unspoiled garden, where nature’s provisions are abundant for those who respect its rhythms. Akin to Shakespeare's mystical island in The Tempest, Willow Springs is overseen by its own conjurer, Miranda “Mama” Day, who inherits her role from the island's founders, Sapphira and Bascombe Wade.
Foundations in Love and Legend
The origin story of Willow Springs is steeped in legend. Sapphira Wade, an African-born slave, and her Norwegian "master," Bascombe Wade, established the island community through their unconventional union. Unlike the local myths that portray Sapphira as a seductress and murderer, the novel reveals a love story that defies such misconceptions. Their legacy, marked by love and solidarity, bequeaths serenity and fulfillment to the land and its people. Mama Day, described as the "ur-Daughter" to Sapphira’s "ur-Mother," embodies this heritage, blending an intimate knowledge of the land with a progressive outlook that embraces both the past and the present.
Contrasting Worlds: Willow Springs and New York City
Naylor crafts a narrative that contrasts the insular life of Willow Springs with the bustling existence in New York City. Ophelia "Cocoa" Day, Mama Day's daughter, embodies this duality. She finds herself torn between the comfort of the island and the allure of the city. Her migration to New York, where she marries George Andrews, a pragmatic orphan raised in an insular environment, mirrors a common journey for many seeking opportunity in urban landscapes. While both Cocoa and George initially adopt defensive postures to navigate city life, their visit to Willow Springs after marriage forces them to confront elemental truths that challenge their urban sensibilities.
The Threads of Multiple Narratives
Naylor expertly weaves the voices of Mama Day, Cocoa, and George to highlight the dynamic between the fast-paced urban lifestyle and the measured cadence of island existence. The novel's structure, as explained by Naylor, is deliberately designed to acclimate readers to the natural and supernatural aspects of Willow Springs, gradually introducing them to its mystical elements. The vivid depiction of city life serves as a stark contrast to the enchanting and more contemplative experience of the island.
Critics and the Essence of Willow Springs
Critics like Rhoda Koenig have misunderstood the nuances of Naylor’s narrative, dismissing the portrayal of Willow Springs as quaint. Yet, the leisurely pace and folk speech reflect a lifestyle that challenges mainstream American values. This depiction resonates with the universal human experience, showcasing a community where life unfolds not in the hustle of city streets but in the embrace of nature's cycles.
Miranda Day: A Symbol of Resilience
At the narrative's core is the character of Mama Day, whose life reflects a profound understanding of natural order and justice. Her seemingly unhurried existence...
(This entire section contains 970 words.)
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belies a powerful sense of urgency that aligns with nature's rhythms. As the story unfolds, Mama Day's wisdom and influence are pivotal in confronting supernatural challenges on the island, proving her as a guardian who harmonizes the mystical with the mundane.
The Supernatural and Human Trials
The climax of Mama Day’s narrative is marked by trials that test her resolve and the community's unity. Ruby, a character consumed by vanity and jealousy, curses Cocoa, threatening the harmony that has sustained Willow Springs. Mama Day’s reaction to this malevolence—drawing a lightning bolt to Ruby’s home and healing Cocoa with her ancient knowledge—demonstrates the interplay of the supernatural and the scientific. Naylor’s narrative suggests that the resolution of such conflicts requires understanding and channeling cosmic forces while nurturing human connections.
Enduring Themes and Legacy
The novel's themes are encapsulated in the portrayal of a once-in-a-century hurricane, a natural calamity that tests the resilience and cooperation of Willow Springs’ inhabitants. This event underscores the community’s ability to adapt and rebuild, reinforcing the island's enduring legacy. Mama Day remains an emblem of the community's strength, a matriarch whose life bridges the past and future with wisdom and grace.
A Vision of African American Life
Miranda Day defies the stereotypes of black conjure women, embodying a deeply significant role within the African American community and the broader American narrative. Her life is a testament to the potential for personal growth and appreciation of life’s abundance. In Naylor’s hands, she becomes not only a matriarch but also a vessel for the intangible essence of black American culture, challenging readers to see beyond societal constraints and embrace the richness of diverse experiences.
The balance between urban and rural, tradition and modernity, is intricately woven throughout Naylor’s work, illustrating that each environment offers its own form of sustenance. This duality is mirrored in Mama Day’s rare visit to New York, where she perceives life’s complexity beyond the city’s superficial chaos, much like George once showed Cocoa. While many characters in Mama Day captivate, it is Miranda Day who occupies the narrative’s heart, epitomizing the timeless and indefinable qualities of black American life.
Historical Context
Rise of the Black Middle Class
During the 1980s, some African-Americans began to attain a level of material
success previously unattainable. Despite the social advancements from the Civil
Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, economic inequality remained a
significant issue for blacks in America. By the 1970s, urban areas saw stark
segregation, with impoverished African-Americans residing in inner-city ghettos
of subsidized housing, while white families moved to affluent suburban
neighborhoods. However, in the 1980s, the effects of affirmative action
(initiated in 1965), coupled with a thriving economy and decreasing
unemployment rates, enabled some African-Americans to secure well-paying jobs.
For the first time, a notable number of black Americans joined the middle
class. Some relocated to affluent white neighborhoods, while others formed
their own prosperous communities, like those depicted by Naylor in Linden Hills
(1985). These changes led to concerns among many, including Naylor, that
middle-class blacks were losing touch with their cultural roots and adopting
white values and beliefs.
In both Linden Hills and Mama Day, Naylor examines the adverse effects of this transformation on African-Americans. George, a character in Mama Day, embodies the affluent black person who is "dark on the outside and white on the inside," a concept encapsulated by the term "Oreo," popular in the 1980s.
African-American Women's Renaissance
The 1970s saw the rise of Toni Morrison and Alice Walker as nationally
acclaimed authors, marking the beginning of a renaissance for African-American
women writers. Walker's The Color Purple (1982) was adapted into a film by
Steven Spielberg. Morrison's works, including The Song of Solomon (1977) and
Beloved (1987), garnered widespread acclaim, culminating in her receiving the
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993. Other authors, such as Toni Cade Bambara,
Maya Angelou, Gayl Jones, and Ntozake Shange, also gained recognition,
reinforcing the notion of a creative flourishing among black women writers. As
Morrison remarked in a conversation with Naylor, published in The Southern
Review in 1985, referring to the significant works by black women, "It's a
real renaissance. You know, we have spoken of renaissance before. But this one
is ours, not somebody else's."
African-American women writers have played such a pivotal role in American literature that some critics argue they have produced the most compelling and influential fiction of the late twentieth century. When Naylor attended college in the late 1970s and early 1980s, she encountered these authors and their predecessors (notably Zora Neale Hurston) for the first time. Their examinations of slavery, racism, black pride, and the dual discrimination faced by black women (both as women and as African Americans) deeply inspired Naylor, making her realize she had a unique voice to contribute as a writer.
Morrison's work, in particular, had a significant impact on her. In the preface to her 1985 conversation with Morrison, Naylor mentioned that Morrison's The Bluest Eye (1971) marked the "beginning" for her. She explained that it "said to a young poet, struggling to break into prose, that the barriers were flexible; at the core of it all is language, and if you're skilled enough with that, you can create your own genre. And it said to a young black woman, struggling to find a mirror of her worth in this society, not only is your story worth telling but it can be told in words so painstakingly eloquent that it becomes a song."
Literary Style
Narrator
A standout feature of Mama Day is its use of multiple narrators, as
Cocoa explains to George at the conclusion, "There are just too many sides to
the whole story." Approximately half to two-thirds of the book is dedicated to
George and Cocoa's dialogue, presented through alternating first-person
narratives. These sections are distinguished from the rest of the text by three
diamond symbols.
Identifying the narrator for the remainder of the novel is challenging. Most critics refer to it as the collective voice of Willow Springs. However, at times it resembles an omniscient narrator who observes everything without participating in the story, and occasionally it appears to emanate from Mama Day's consciousness. In the novel's preface, the voice from Willow Springs addresses the reader, "Think about it: ain't nobody really talking to you. We're sitting here in Willow Springs, and you're God-knows-where.… Really listen this time: the only voice is your own." Given the novel's emphasis on various perspectives, it is fitting that this unnamed narrator adopts different viewpoints, even including the reader in its magical realm.
Setting
In the first half of the novel, George and Cocoa reside in New York, with their
experiences there alternating with events in Willow Springs. The latter half of
the novel is set entirely in Willow Springs, a fictional locale. These two
settings offer a stark contrast. New York is a bustling metropolis, while
Willow Springs is a small, rural island. Additionally, while New York is
globally renowned, Willow Springs isn't even marked on maps, and its residents
prefer it that way. "Part of Willow Springs's problems was that it got put on
some maps right after the War Between the States."
The island is situated off the coast near the border of South Carolina and Georgia, with neither state claiming it. As a result, Willow Springs is an autonomous, self-governing community that participates only in presidential elections. Although phone lines extend over the sound and television signals reach the island, its connections to the mainland are tenuous: "We done learned that anything coming from beyond the bridge gotta be viewed real, real careful." The bridge is even destroyed by a storm approximately every sixty-nine years, severing its link to the mainland, as occurs during the hurricane. Willow Springs doesn't truly feel like part of the United States. Its beliefs and customs are more akin to those brought over from Africa by its ancestors than to the ones George knows from New York.
SymbolsMama Day employs numerous symbols, starting with the island of Willow Springs itself. More than just a secluded rural community, Willow Springs symbolizes another world that is neither American nor African, neither entirely real nor completely imaginary. It is a place where the past remains vibrant and the boundaries between the living and the dead are blurred.
On the island, numerous elements hold symbolic significance, such as the chickens, which are linked to Mama Day, fertility, and femininity. When George confronts the chickens, he is facing all the enigmatic forces of Cocoa, the Day family, and Willow Springs. The quilt that Abigail and Mama Day create for Cocoa represents a tapestry of the Day family, designed to remind her of her cultural roots. The bridge serves as both a literal and symbolic connection between Willow Springs (representing the imaginary and the past) and the mainland (symbolizing the real and the present). When a storm, carrying symbolic meaning from Africa, destroys the bridge, George fears not only that he cannot find a "real" doctor for Cocoa but also that they are ensnared in this mystical world.
Additionally, hands hold significant importance in how Mama Day perceives her connection to her ancestors and the necessary steps to save Cocoa. George must "hand" over his self-belief to Mama Day: "She needs his hand in hers—his very hand—so she can connect it up with all the believing that had gone before.… So together they could build the bridge for Baby Girl to walk over." By joining hands, symbolically, they can heal her together.
Magical RealismMama Day is best described as magical realism, where the everyday and the supernatural coexist and intertwine within the narrative. In this context, the magical becomes as "real" as the ordinary aspects of the story. In Mama Day, the world of Willow Springs includes realistic elements, such as Mama Day watching "The Phil Donahue Show" and Bernice falling ill from a fertility drug. There are also magical elements, like Mama Day assisting Bernice in conceiving through a mystical fertility ritual involving chicken eggs and Cocoa hearing the voices of her ancestors at the other place. Moreover, the "real" aspects of the story are associated with the rational, white world of the United States mainland, while the magical aspects are rooted in African folk medicine and beliefs, centered on the island of Willow Springs. Consequently, Willow Springs becomes a place where the "real" and magical harmoniously coexist.
Literary Techniques
Naylor's use of varying points of view subtly highlights cultural differences, the enduring impact of the past, the significance of tradition, the potential for magic, and the presence of the inexplicable. The narrative alternates between first-person accounts from George and Cocoa and third-person perspectives focused on Miranda's activities during the same timeframe. In the sections narrated by Cocoa and George, they take turns addressing each other, reflecting on their meeting and relationship. These parts reveal Cocoa's emotional tendencies and her quickness to jump to conclusions, contrasted with George's more cautious, restrained, and logical demeanor. However, since they narrate their stories after the events of the novel, with a more mature perspective, their voices show a layer of self-awareness and more integrated personalities. The language in their sections also highlights their education and greater assimilation into mainstream society.
The third-person sections, narrated in a collective voice, reflect a more communal spirit, and the colloquial language captures the essence of the culture. The prologue and ending imply that Cocoa returns to Willow Springs to "talk" to George, and the first-person sections become their conversations, resembling a Willow Springs tradition known as a "Standing Forth." This tradition is a type of funeral without flowers or music where residents gather to address the dead, sharing memories of "when I first saw you" and expectations for "when I see you again." Thus, the dead are never truly gone; despite death, there remains a form of communication.
Naylor employs additional techniques to suggest the merging of past, present, and future, particularly through Miranda's stream-of-consciousness flashbacks and significant foreshadowing from both Miranda's and Cocoa's perspectives. While Miranda's narrative is clear and accessible, the language in the flashbacks and foreshadowing becomes denser and more complex, filled with wordplay. References to the family's loss of Peace—symbolizing both the names of two children and the family's loss of tranquility—carry double meanings with substantial symbolic weight. Similarly, references to George's literal and metaphorical heart troubles serve a dual purpose. Through these passages, Naylor both directly and indirectly elucidates her symbolic and thematic concerns.
Ideas for Group Discussions
The novel raises important issues regarding gender, race, and culture that should encourage engaging discussions. Additionally, themes like the interplay between faith and reason, as well as rationality versus intuition, are likely to spark debate. The book also offers numerous opportunities for technical analysis. For example, the stream-of-consciousness flashback scenes and more complex lyrical passages act almost like puzzle pieces, helping readers comprehend the influence of past generations, the importance of George's final mission, and Cocoa's eventual growth and maturity.
1. Although their ancestors were enslaved many generations ago—and were unusual cases of slaves who gained freedom and owned significant property—their legacy persists in the attitudes and traditions of Willow Springs. How has this heritage resulted in positive outcomes? What about negative ones?
2. Naylor appears to support and celebrate women's empowerment along with activities and values traditionally linked to women and non-Western cultures. What are some examples of these activities and values? What does Naylor imply about the role of men? Does she consider more Western, male-centric values like logic and rationality to be valuable?
3. How can the novel's mystical events be interpreted through a rational lens? In what ways do they defy explanation?
4. How would the novel's meaning change if the dense, lyrical flashback passages were omitted?
5. How do George and Cocoa evolve throughout the novel? Does Miranda experience any significant transformations, or does she remain a relatively static character?
Literary Precedents
Although critics have drawn parallels between Naylor's work and that of Ann Petry, James Baldwin, and Toni Morrison for its lyrical and often experimental depiction of African-American characters and cultures, the most evident literary influence is Shakespeare's Tempest. This play revolves around exiles on a deserted island, incorporates magical elements, and questions the true nature of "civilization." By retelling the story from a black woman's perspective, Naylor honors Shakespeare while emphasizing the contrasts between white European culture and the descendants of African slaves. Miranda shares her name with Shakespeare's innocent young heroine, whose main role is to be part of the play's love story. In Naylor's version, however, Miranda embodies the resistance to oppression and slavery that Shakespeare's Caliban represents. Naylor's most groundbreaking change is transforming Miranda into a powerful Prospero-like figure; she rules her island and, like Prospero, casts spells. However, Miranda relies much more on her intuition, wisdom, and faith. Prospero's magical book and staff are mirrored by Miranda's walking stick and the ledger she discovers. Naylor gently mocks the white male literary tradition represented by Shakespeare when Cocoa remarks, "Shakespeare didn't have a bit of soul—I don't care if he did write about … some slave on a Caribbean island."
Media Adaptations
Mama Day was recorded as an audiobook in 1989 by Brilliance.
Naylor has crafted a screenplay for the film adaptation of Mama Day, which is set to be produced by her company, One Way Productions, Inc. However, the film has not been made yet.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Brown, Rita Mae. Review in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and
Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993,
pp. 13-15.
Erickson, Peter. "'Shakespeare's Black?': The Role of Shakespeare in Naylor's Novels," in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993, pp. 231-48.
Gloch, Allison. "A Woman to Be Reckoned With," in Special Report, January-February, 1993, pp. 22-25.
Hass, Rachel. Review in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993, pp. 22-23.
Hayes, Elizabeth T. "Gloria Naylor's Mama Day as Magic Realism," in The Critical Response to Gloria Naylor, edited by Sharon Felton and Michelle C. Loris. Greenwood Press, 1997, pp. 177-86.
Kelley, Margot Anne. "Sister's Choices: Quilting Aesthetics in Contemporary African-American Women's Fiction," in Quilt Culture: Tracing the Pattern, edited by Cheryl B. Torsney and Judy Elsley. University of Missouri Press, 1994, pp. 49-67.
Kubitschek, Missy Dehn. "Toward a New Order: Shakespeare, Morrison, and Gloria Naylor's Mama Day," in Melus, Vol. 19, No. 3, Fall, 1994, pp. 75-90.
Levy, Helen Fiddyment. "Lead on with Light," in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993, pp. 263-84.
Loris, Michelle C. Interview: "The Human Spirit Is a Kick-Ass Thing," in The Critical Response to Gloria Naylor, edited by Sharon Felton and Michelle C. Loris. Greenwood Press, 1997, pp. 251-63.
Meisenhelder, Susan. "'The Whole Picture' in Gloria Naylor's Mama Day," in African-American Review, Vol. 27, No. 3, 1993, pp. 405-19.
Mukherjee, Bharati. Review in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993, pp. 19-21.
Naylor, Gloria, and Toni Morrison. "A Conversation," in Southern Review, Vol. 21, Summer, 1983, pp. 567-93.
Simon, Linda. Review in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, edited by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and K. A. Appiah. Amistad, 1993, pp. 15-18.
Tucker, Lindsey. "Recovering the Conjure Woman: Texts and Contexts in Gloria Naylor's Mama Day," in African-American Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1994, pp. 173-88.
For Further Study
Edwards, Tamala. "A Conversation with Gloria Naylor," in Essence,
June, 1998, p. 70. Edwards interviews Naylor about the release of her latest
book, The Men of Brewster Place.
Felton, Sharon, and Michelle C. Loris, eds. The Critical Response to Gloria Naylor. Greenwood Press, 1997. This compilation of articles on Naylor's work offers a useful overview of the criticism on Mama Day, discussing themes like the quilting motif, the role of the conjure woman, the reinterpretation of The Tempest, and the use of magical realism. An interview with Naylor is also featured.
Fowler, Virginia C. Gloria Naylor: In Search of Sanctuary. Twayne, 1996. Fowler's book includes a biography of Naylor and an analysis of her novels up to Bailey's Cafe. It also contains an interview with Naylor.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., and K. A. Appiah, eds. Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present. Amistad, 1993. This book features numerous early reviews of Mama Day and includes critiques of Naylor's other works.
Mandulo, Rhea. "Georgia on My Mind," in Essence, March, 1993, p. 144. Describes the author's journey to the Sea Islands of Georgia, inspired in part by the fictional island of Willow Springs in Mama Day.
Odamtten, Vincent. "Reviewing Gloria Naylor: Toward a Neo-African Critique," in Of Dreams Deferred, Dead or Alive: African Perspectives on African-American Writers, edited by Femi Ojo-Ade. Greenwood Press, 1996, pp. 115-29. Interprets Naylor's work as an expression of African concepts regarding religion, family, and culture.
Perry, Donna. Interview in Backtalk: Women Writers Speak Out. Rutgers University Press, 1993, pp. 218-42. In this interview, Perry examines Naylor's connections with other female authors and questions her about her first four novels.
Peterson, V. R. Review in People Weekly, April 18, 1988, p. 9. A generally positive review that commends Naylor's writing style while offering criticism of her character development.
Rowell, Charles. "An Interview with Gloria Naylor," in Callaloo, Winter, 1997, pp. 179-92. This interview primarily delves into Naylor's journey to becoming a writer and her thoughts on literature.