Places Discussed
Wilton Crescent
Wilton Crescent. Fashionable section of London’s upscale West End. Act 1 is set in the library of Lady Britomart Undershaft’s house, which she has tastefully decorated with money from her husband, who has become wealthy by manufacturing arms. Although the pictures, books, and music portfolios identified in stage directions suggest the Undershaft family will be gathering in an enlightened environment conducive to liberal thinking, Lady Britomart steps forward as a Victorian relic of upper-class materialism. Thus, the library’s rich decor calls attention to Lady Britomart’s insistence upon money as the panacea for whatever problems she and her adult children confront.
West Ham
West Ham. Location of the newly whitewashed Salvation Army shelter in London’s impoverished East End in which the play’s second act is set. Seen through Barbara Undershaft’s eyes, the shelter represents charitable compassion. Conversely, for the destitute who seek refuge here from the January cold, it represents food as bribery. Barbara has devoted herself to saving souls within these bleak surroundings, but she is no match for her intruding millionaire father who proves that her means for rescuing the downtrodden are hollow. After Undershaft purchases her religious idealism by donating five thousand pounds to the shelter, Barbara walks away under a leaden sky, knowing that her illusions have been as thin as the whitewash on the slum warehouse.
Perivale St. Andrews
Perivale St. Andrews. Location of Andrew Undershaft’s munitions foundry set amid the hills of Middlesex. The fictitious Perivale St. Andrews of act 3 is a frighteningly perfect utopian community made up of churches, libraries, schools, banquet chambers, and nursing homes. Not to be overlooked, however, the dummy soldiers strewn under a high explosives shed testify to the ghastly effects produced by the bombshells on display at this “triumph of modern industry.” The foundry clearly symbolizes the entrepreneur’s right to spread destruction; however, from among the clutter of props in the closing scene, Barbara emerges as an energetic life force who intends to use her inherited money and power to fight the evils of war.
Historical Context
In the early 1900s, there was a growing global interest in socialism, which supports government ownership or control over the production and distribution of goods and services. In 1905, Russian workers revolted against the Czar. In the United States, Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle exposed the appalling working conditions of immigrant laborers in Chicago's meatpacking plants and advocated for a socialist remedy. Although Sinclair unintentionally drew more attention to the contamination of meat products than to the workers' hardships, the subsequent enactment of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was still a triumph over unchecked capitalism.
Throughout the nineteenth century, England transitioned from an agrarian society to an industrial one, prompting many people to move from rural areas to urban centers. This industrial growth led to increased worker unrest and unemployment, which rose between 1900 and 1904. During this period, the government began to assume more responsibility for the unemployed. The Unemployed Workmen Act of 1905 established committees to assist the unemployed, but despite these efforts, unemployment remained a significant issue, working conditions were far from ideal, and laborers were still dissatisfied. There were numerous strikes, and trade union membership doubled between 1900 and 1914.
In this environment, the socialist Fabian Society, to which Shaw belonged, gained prominence. The Fabians advocated for societal change through government participation rather than revolutionary overthrow, and members were elected to various positions. The Fabian Society was one of many organizations aiming for social reform. Several individuals also became notable for their efforts. In late Victorian and...
(This entire section contains 745 words.)
Unlock this Study Guide Now
Start your 48-hour free trial and get ahead in class. Boost your grades with access to expert answers and top-tier study guides. Thousands of students are already mastering their assignments—don't miss out. Cancel anytime.
Already a member? Log in here.
Edwardian England, poverty began to be seen as a consequence of unemployment rather than the immorality of the poor, which made people more receptive to reform initiatives. This new perspective on poverty is reflected inMajor Barbara, which portrays poverty as an unnatural and even immoral condition for humanity.
Religion played a significant role in England during this time, and churches were major advocates for social reform. In 1890, Salvation Army founder William Booth published In Darkest England and the Way Out, where he argued that England, with its severe poverty, could not consider itself superior to Africa. Booth called for substantial societal changes to eradicate poverty. Shaw was deeply influenced by Booth's work, and this influence, especially Booth's view of poverty, is evident in Major Barbara.
While the significance of churches during this era cannot be overlooked, there was also a surge in agnosticism, the belief that it is impossible to know whether or not a deity exists. The term "agnostic" was actually coined by British naturalist Thomas Huxley in 1869. In 1859, Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species, where he introduced his theories of evolution and natural selection. Darwin’s theories startled Victorians, as they challenged traditional religious views, particularly the belief that humans were divinely created rather than evolved from lower primates as suggested by Darwin’s work. Even in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, religious individuals felt threatened by Darwin's theories.
For many, this era was marked by doubt, as scientific advancements seemed to question the validity of religious beliefs. The benefits of growing developments in science and technology were themselves under scrutiny. Early in the nineteenth century, the Luddites, who viewed advancing technology as harmful, had literally destroyed the machines of the Industrial Revolution. This distrust of scientific and technological progress persisted into the next century and is reflected in Major Barbara when Undershaft revels in the advancement of more sophisticated weapons technology, which is considered "better" because it can kill more efficiently.
Another contentious topic was women's rights. The struggle for women's suffrage (or the right to vote) in England began in the 1870s and continued, without success, until 1926, when women were finally granted the right to vote. At the time Major Barbara was produced, women had only recently gained the legal right to own property. In Major Barbara, when Lady Britomart wants the Undershaft business to pass to Barbara, this is achieved by naming Cusins, Barbara’s future husband, as Undershaft’s successor. However, the role of women in society was evolving. The term "new woman," likely coined in 1894, gained prominence. The new woman was part of a more liberated generation, advocating for women's suffrage, education for women, and the end of the sexual double standard. The character of Barbara, who attains the masculine title of Major and seeks fulfillment and duty outside the home but ultimately embraces domestic life and her mother’s world by the end of the play, reflects the changing roles of women in Shaw’s time.
Literary Style
Plot and Subplot
Critics have identified at least four potential plots in Major Barbara: the conversion struggle between Barbara and her father, Lady Britomart's efforts to secure financial stability for her children, the question of whether Barbara and Cusins will marry, and Barbara's fight for Bill Walker's soul. While each plot is distinct, they are all interwoven throughout the play. The "good vs. evil" conflict between Barbara and her father is generally regarded as the main plot, as it drives the play's action. The other plots are considered subplots that, while important, primarily serve to support the main storyline and their resolutions are secondary to the primary plot.
Setting
Since Shaw did not specify a time period for Major Barbara, it is assumed to be set around 1905, the year of its first production. The action unfolds in three locations: Lady Britomart's library, Barbara's Salvation Army shelter, and Undershaft's factory and model town of Penvale St. Andrews. These settings highlight the conflict between Barbara and Undershaft. They first meet on neutral ground, then in Barbara's domain, and finally in Undershaft's territory, which eventually becomes Barbara's by the play's end. The stage illustrates the luxury of Lady Britomart's lifestyle in Act I, the poverty of the shelter in Act II, and the modest comfort of Undershaft's business in Act III. However, in Act III, the mutilated dummy soldiers serve as a stark reminder of the horrors of Undershaft's business, detracting from the beauty of Perivale St. Andrews.
Allusion
An allusion is an indirect reference, often to another literary work. Understanding an author's allusions can provide deeper insight into their work. In Major Barbara, references to Undershaft as the Devil and Mephistopheles, as well as the themes of selling and saving souls, allude to the Faust legends, where Faust sells his soul to the Devil. The most famous English retelling of this story is Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus (1594). Another renowned version is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust (Part I, 1808; Part II, 1832). Additionally, Major Barbara contains numerous references to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, and to Euripides, whose play The Bacchae (406 B.C.) revolves around the worship of Dionysus.
Symbolism
A symbol is an element that suggests something beyond its literal meaning. Barbara's Salvation Army uniform and brooch symbolize her faith in the Salvation Army. When she loses her faith, she no longer wears them. The mutilated dummy soldiers in Act III symbolize the violence inherent in both war and capitalism.
Comedy
The term comedy can describe a play that is light-hearted and amusing, often culminating in a happy ending. It can also refer to a play that addresses serious subjects in a humorous or satirical way. Major Barbara fits both descriptions. The play is filled with comedic moments: Undershaft repeatedly forgetting his children's names, Lomax's foolishness displayed through his silly remarks and his dangerous act of smoking in the explosives shed, almost causing an explosion at the Undershaft business. Lady Britomart's dominance over her domineering husband adds to the humor. Shaw also critiques the Salvation Army by depicting how its beneficiaries exploit the organization's aid through deceit. Furthermore, he highlights the brutality of capitalism by contrasting the picturesque Perivale St. Andrews with the grim nature of the work conducted there. The play concludes on a positive note. The protagonist, Barbara, discovers her purpose, and like many comedies, it ends with a marriage proposal.
Dialogue
Dialogue plays a crucial role in Major Barbara, though it has faced criticism for what some perceive as an overemphasis on verbal debate. Much of the play's "action" unfolds through dialogue, as characters' conversations drive the plot forward. For example, Cusins' decision to take over Undershaft's position is preceded by extensive discussions on moral issues. Shaw himself described the play as "a discussion in three long acts."
Compare and Contrast
1905: Interest in socialism rises with the formation of numerous socialist organizations and a revolutionary attempt in Russia. Although this revolution ultimately fails, socialists remain hopeful about future uprisings.
Today: The fall of the Soviet Union and East Germany casts significant doubt on the viability of socialist regimes. Many argue that, like Russia, a socialist government cannot function without becoming a communist dictatorship. While socialist organizations still exist, their beliefs are now largely outside the mainstream.
1905: Women fight for fundamental rights, including the right to vote, which is not granted in England until 1926.
Today: In the United States and England, women have achieved legal rights equal to men, but many believe there is still much progress to be made, especially in non-Western countries.
1905: Christianity is a dominant force, influencing all aspects of society, but interest in agnosticism is on the rise. In Western nations, non-Christian religious members face discrimination.
Today: Christianity remains influential, though its societal impact has diminished. Interest in non-Christian religions is growing, and followers of these faiths encounter less prejudice. Agnosticism and atheism are widely accepted and increasingly popular.
1905: The government begins to play a larger role in social programs. Significant efforts are made by individuals and organizations toward social reform.
Today: Many believe that the government is ineffective at solving social issues. Consequently, the governments of England and the United States have reduced spending on social programs, leading to a greater reliance on volunteerism and privately-funded organizations like Greenpeace and Amnesty International.
1905: Charles Darwin's theories continue to spark debate. Significant scientific advancements are made, including Einstein's publication on the theory of relativity, but there is skepticism about the benefits of rapid scientific and technological progress.
Today: The theories of natural selection and evolution are widely accepted among educated individuals, but there is a growing search for scientific evidence supporting creationism (the belief that man was created fully-formed by God). The cloning of sheep raises serious ethical concerns. The exponential increase in computer use sparks debate about technology's impact on the quality of life.
Media Adaptations
Major Barbara was turned into a movie in 1941, featuring extra scenes and characters introduced by Shaw. The film was directed by Gabriel Pascal and included performances by Wendy Hiller, Robert Morley, Rex Harrison, and Robert Newton.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Bertolim, John A. The Playwriting Self of Bernard Shaw, Southern Illinois University Press (Carbondale), 1991, pp. 64-65.
Bloom, Harold. Introduction to George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, Chelsea House (New York), 1988, pp. 1-11.
Carr, Pat M. Bernard Shaw, Frederick Ungar (New York), 1976, p. 58.
Dukore, Bernard F. Bernard Shaw, Playwright: Aspects of Shavian Drama, University of Missouri Press (Columbia), 1973, pp. 86-90.
Gainor, J. Ellen. Shaw's Daughters: Dramatic and Narrative Constructions of Gender, University of Michigan Press (Ann Arbor), 1991, pp. 218-24.
Holroyd, Michael. Bernard Shaw Volume II 1898-1918: The Pursuit of Power, Penguin (London), 1989, pp. 147-48.
Archer, William. File on Shaw, edited by Margery M. Morgan, Methuen Drama (London), 1989, p. 54.
Morgan, Margery M. "Skeptical Faith" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House (New York), 1988, pp. 49-73.
Smith, J. Percy. "Shaw's Own Problem Play" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp. 133-51.
Turco, Alfred, Jr. "Shaw's Moral Vision" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp. 103-31.
Watson, Barbara Bellow. "Sainthood for Millionaires" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp. 13-31.
Further Reading
Bloom, Harold, Editor. George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, Chelsea House, 1988. This collection includes various critiques on different aspects of Shaw's play.
Briggs, Asa. A Social History of England, Weidenfeld and Nicolson (London), 1994. This comprehensive study covers English society from ancient times to the present, with an extensive chapter on the Victorian and early Edwardian periods.
Gainor, J. Ellen. Shaw's Daughters: Dramatic and Narrative Constructions of Gender, University of Michigan Press, 1991. This work examines women in Shaw's plays, focusing on Victorian conceptions of womanhood and the portrayal of daughters in his works.
Peters, Sally. Bernard Shaw: The Ascent of the Superman, Yale University Press (New Haven), 1996. An in-depth literary biography that explores Shaw's life and his body of work.
Weintraub, Stanley. Shaw's People: Victoria to Churchill, Pennsylvania State University Press (University Park), 1996. This book delves into Shaw's relationships and attitudes towards various contemporaries, including Salvation Army founder William Booth, situating Shaw within his societal context.