were elected to a variety of positions. The Fabian Society was only one of many organizations armed at bringing about social reform. A number of individuals became known for their own efforts as well. Late Victorian and Edwardian England had begun to see poverty as the result of unemployment radier than the immorality of the poor, and so people were open to efforts at reform. This new attitude toward the poor is reflect inMajor Barbara, which depicts poverty as an unnatural (even immoral) state for humankind.

Religion was an important force in England at this time, and churches were a major influence on efforts at social reform. In 1890, Salvation Army founder William Booth published In Darkest England and the Way Out, in which he argued that England, with the horrors of its own poverty, could not consider itself superior to Africa. Booth called for major changes in society in order to eliminate poverty. Shaw was greatly impressed by Booth's work, and its influence, particularly Booth's perception of poverty, can be seen in Major Barbara.

Although the importance of churches at this time cannot be ignored, there was also a rise in agnosticism, the belief that it is impossible to know whether or not there is a God. The term "agnostic," m fact, was coined by British naturalist Thomas Huxley in 1869 In 1859, Charles Darwin had published The Origin of Species, in which he presented his theories of evolution and natural selection. Darwin's theories shocked Victorians, as it cast doubt on traditional religious beliefs (most notably the belief that man was divinely created rather than evolved from lower primates as Darwin's work suggested), and religious people still felt threatened by Darwin's dieories in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

For many, this period was a time of doubt as scientific progress seemed to call the truth of religion into question. In general, the good of increasing developments in science and technology was itself doubted. Early in the nineteenth century, the Luddites, who considered advancing technology to be an evil, had literally smashed the machines of the Industrial Revolution. This mistrust of scientific and technological progress, which continued into the next century, is reflected in Major Barbara when Undershaft delights in the development of more advanced weapons technology, which is "better" because it can kill people more efficiently.

Another area of much disagreement was me subject of women's rights. The struggle for women' s suffrage (or the right to vote) in England began in the 1870s and continued, without success, until 1926, when women were finally allowed to vote. At the time Major Barbara was produced, it had only recently been decided that women had the legal right to own property. And in Major Barbara, when Lady Bntomart wants the Undershaft business to go to Barbara, this is accomplished by naming Cusins, Barbara's future husband, as Undershaft's successor. The place of women in society, however, was changing The term "new woman," probably coined in 1894, came into prominence. The new woman was a member of a new, more liberated, generation. She believed in women's suffrage as well as education for women and the end of the sexual double standard. The character of Barbara, who gains the masculine title of Major and who looks for fulfillment and duty outside of the home but who by the end of the play clearly embraces domestic life and the world of her mother as well, reflects the changing roles of women m Shaw's time.

Plot and Subplot Critics have noted at least four possible plots in Major Barbara: the conversion struggle between Barbara and her father, the question of how Lady Britomart will secure incomes for her children, the question of whether Barbara and Cusins will marry, and Barbara's battle for Bill Walker's soul. Although each are distinct plots, all are intertwined throughout the course of the play. The "good vs. evil" contest between Barbara and her father is most often seen as the main plot, as the action of the play revolves around its development. The others can be considered subplots. Although they are important, their main function is to support the main plot thread and their resolution is subordinate to that of the primary storyline.

Setting Since Shaw did not specify a time period for the action in Major Barbara, the action can be assumed to take place around 1905, the year of the first production. The action takes place in three locations: Lady Britomart's library, Barbara's Salvation Army shelter, and Undershaft's factory and model town of Penvale St. Andrews. The depiction of these three locations highlights the conflict between Barbara and Undershaft. They meet first on neutral ground, then in her territory, then in his, which also becomes Barbara's by the end of the play. The stage is used to illustrate the opulence of Lady Britomart's way of life in Act I, the poverty and degradation of the shelter in Act II, and the clean, modest comfort of Undershaft's place of business in Act III. Also m Act III, however, the mutilated dummy soldiers serve as mute testimony to the horrors of Undershaft's business, undermining some of Perivale St. Andrew's beauty.

Allusion An allusion is an indirect reference, usually to another literary work. Being familiar with an author's allusions leads to a deeper understanding of his or her work. In Major Barbara, references to Undershaft as the Devil and Mephistopheles as well as the selling-and saving-of souls are allusions to the Faust legends, in whichFaust sells his soul to the Devil. The best known English-language retelling of this tale is Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Dr. Faust (1594). Another well-known version is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust (Part I, 1808, Part II, 1832). There are also numerous references in Major Barbara to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, and to Euripides, whose play The Bacchae (406 B.C.) is about the worship of Dionysus.

Symbolism A symbol is a person, object, or action that suggests something else. Barbara's Salvation Army uniform and brooch are symbols of her faith in the Salvation Army. When she loses her faith, she no longer wears either. The mutilated dummy soldiers that appear in Act m are symbols of the violence of both war and capitalism.

Comedy The word comedy can refer to a play that is light and entertaining and has a happy ending. It can also be used to mean a play that deals with serious topics in a light or satirical manner. Major Barbara is both. There are many humorous moments throughout the play: Undershaft's inability to remember the names of his children, Lomax's stupidity, illustrated by his numerous inane comments and by his smoking in the explosives shed, nearly blowing up the Undershaft business; Lady Britomart's control of her controlling husband Shaw satirizes the Salvation Army by showing the recipients of its largesse gain this Christian organization's assistance by deceit. He also satirizes the violence of capitalism by juxtaposing the beauty of Perivale St. Andrews with the horror of the work done there. The play also has a happy ending. The heroine Barbara has found her work and, as occurs in numerous comedies, the play ends with a decision to marry.

Dialogue Dialogue is an important aspect of Major Barbara, which has been criticized for what is sometimes seen as an excessive emphasis on verbal argument. Much of the " action'' of the play, in fact, is actually in the dialogue, as characters' discussions move the drama forward. For instance, Cusins' decision to succeed Undershaft is preceded by lengthy arguments about moral issues. Shaw himself referred to the plays as "a discussion in three long acts.''

1905: Interest in socialism grows with the development of many socialist organizations and an attempt at revolution in Russia. Although this revolution initially fails, hopes among socialists for future revolutions are high.

Today: The collapse of the governments of the Soviet Union and East Germany serves to create strong doubts about the possible viability of any socialist regime (many argue that, like Russia's system, a socialist government cannot function without becoming a communist dictatorship). Although there are still socialist organizations, their beliefs are now well outside the mainstream of society.

1905: Women struggle for basic rights, including the right to vote, which is not granted in England until 1926.

Today: In the United States and England, women have earned legal rights equal to those of men, but many believe that much progress remains to be made, particularly in non-Western countries.

1905: Christianity is a major force, affecting all aspects of society, but interest in agnosticism continues to grow. In Western nations, members of non-Christian religions are subject to discrimination.

Today: Christianity remains viable, though its influence on society as a whole is lessened. Interest in non-Christian religions increases, and adherents of those religions face less prejudice. Agnosticism and atheism are acceptable—and increasingly popular—options.

1905: The government becomes more involved in social programs. Individuals and organizations make major efforts at social reform.

Today: Many people believe that the government cannot effectively solve social problems, and the governments of England and the United States have cut spending on social programs, resulting in a greater emphasis on volunteerism and privately-funded organizations such as Greenpeace and Amnesty International.

1905: Charles Darwin's theories continue to cause debate. Much scientific progress is made, including Einstein's publication of his paper on the theory of relativity, but many question the good of rapid scientific and technological advances.

Today: The theories of natural selection and evolution are accepted by most educated people, but there is an increase in the search for scientific evidence for creationism (the belief that man was created, fully-formed, by God). The cloning of sheep raises serious ethical questions. The astronomical increase in the use of computers causes some debate over advancing technology's effect on the quality of life.

Major Barbara was adapted as a film in 1941, with additional scenes and characters added by Shaw. The film was directed by Gabriel Pascal and starred Wendy Hiller, Robert Morley, Rex Harrison, and Robert Newton.

Sources Bertolim, John A. The Playwrighting Self of Bernard Shaw, Southern Illinois University Press (Carbondale), 1991, pp. 64-65.

Bloom, Harold. Introduction to his George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, Chelsea House (New York), 1988, pp. 1-11.

Carr, Pat M. Bernard Shaw, Frederick Ungar (New York), 1976, pp 58.

Dukore, Bernard F. Bernard Shaw, Playwright: Aspects of Shavian Drama, University of Missouri Press (Columbia), 1973, pp 86-90.

Gainor, J. Ellen. Shaw's Daughters- Dramatic and Narrative Constructions of Gender, University of Michigan Press (Ann Arbor), 1991, pp. 218-24.

Holroyd, Michael. Bernard Shaw Volume II 1898-1918. The Pursuit of Power, Penguin (London), 1989, pp. 147-48.

Archer, William. File on Shaw, edited by Margery M Morgan, Methuen Drama (London), 1989, p. 54.

Morgan, Margery M. "Skeptical Faith" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House (New York), 1988, pp 49-73.

Smith, J Percy. "Shaw's Own Problem Play" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp 133-51.

Turco, Alfred, Jr. "Shaw's Moral Vision" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp 103-31.

Watson, Barbara Bellow. "Sainthood for Millionaires" in George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, edited by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House, 1988, pp 13-31.

Further Reading Bloom, Harold, Editor. George Bernard Shaw's Major Barbara, Chelsea House, 1988. This is a collection of papers by numerous critics on different aspects of Shaw's play.

Briggs, Asa. A Social History of England, Weidenfeld and Nicolson (London), 1994. A study of English society from antiquity to the present, this books contains a lengthy chapter on the Victorian and early Edwardian eras.

Gainor, J. Ellen. Shaw's Daughters: Dramatic and Narrative Constructions of Gender, University of Michigan Press, 1991. This is a study of women in Shaw's plays, focusing on the conception of womanhood in Victorian culture and the image of the daughter m Shaw's plays.

Peters, Sally. Bernard Shaw The Ascent of the Superman, Yale University Press (New Haven), 1996. This is an extended literary biography of Shaw, discussing his life as well as his works.

Werntraub, Stanley. Shaw's People. Victoria to Churchill, Pennsylvania State University Press (University Park), 1996 This book focuses on Shaw and his relationships with and attitudes toward various people of his time, including Salvation Army founder William Booth It places Shaw more completely in the context of his society.