religious outcasts, and Dravidians (the indigenous inhabitants of India). The caste system mandated that individuals never marry outside their caste, and many occupations were restricted to specific castes. However, there were occasional exceptions to these strictures. For instance, Prince Duryodhana appoints Karna—whom he believes to be the son of a charioteer—as the King of Anga. In the context of the story, this act is meant to showcase the prince's temporal power rather than suggest the possibility of moving to a higher caste, which was not actually possible. Individuals remained bound to their caste throughout their lives, though a virtuous person could hope to be reborn into a higher caste in their next life.

Hinduism

Hinduism emerged from the Vedic traditions that thrived in the Indus River Valley. The term "hindu" is derived from "sindu," meaning river, specifically referring to the Indus River. Practitioners of this religion, which is now widespread in India, parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, and other regions, worship a vast array of deities. Among the most revered are Shiva and Vishnu, who both feature prominently in the Mahabharata—with Vishnu appearing as Krishna in his earthly form. The sacred scriptures of Hinduism include the four Vedas and the Upanishads, which are collections of ancient wisdom and ethical teachings. In addition to these, Hindu literature encompasses several significant non-sacred texts. These include the eighteen puranas or "ancient tales," with the Mahabharata—especially Krishna's discourse to Arjuna known as the Bhagavad Gita—and the Ramayana being particularly noteworthy. Central to these writings are the fundamental principles of Hinduism. One key concept is the cyclical nature of the universe, which is believed to undergo endless cycles of creation and destruction over vast epochs. Similarly, human life is viewed as cyclical. According to Hindu beliefs, the soul is eternal and can experience numerous lifetimes on earth. This ongoing cycle is known as samsara, or reincarnation. The destiny of the soul in future lifetimes is governed by karma, often described as "the fatality of the act." In essence, karma represents a cosmic law of cause and effect. Good deeds in this life will lead to rewards in the next, while evil actions will result in punishment. Individuals who lead virtuous lives may be reincarnated into a higher caste, whereas those who commit wrongdoings may be reborn into a lower caste or even as animals. In this belief system, heaven exists but serves only as a temporary state where souls reside before being reborn. However, the cycles of death and rebirth can ultimately be transcended if one achieves moksa, or liberation from worldly desires. This state is attained by realizing the unity of the individual soul (atman) with the universal soul (Brahman).

Kurukshetra

Kurukshetra, the storied plain of the Kurus, serves as the pivotal battlefield in the Mahabharata, where two factions—the Pandavas and the Kauravas—confront each other in a decisive struggle. Before the clash, Krishna imparts profound philosophical and theological teachings to Arjuna. These teachings, encapsulated in the Bhagavad Gita, represent a spiritual dialogue that transcends the immediate conflict. Kurukshetra is thus emblematic of life's broader battlefield, where individuals must contend with their higher and lower selves.

Hastinapur

Hastinapur stands as the capital of the Bharata Kingdom, the ancestral realm where the five Pandavas and the hundred Kauravas are raised together. It becomes the epicenter of their familial discord, a place where the seeds of their eventual conflict over inheritance are sown. As the heart of their early lives, Hastinapur is imbued with the tensions that ultimately lead to war.

Indraprastha

Indraprastha emerges as the seat of power for the Pandavas after King Dhritarashtra divides the Bharata Kingdom in an effort to stave off civil war between the feuding factions. This division is meant to maintain peace but only delays the inevitable conflict. Indraprastha symbolizes the Pandavas' brief moment of stability and sovereignty before their fortunes take another turn.

Assembly Hall

The Assembly Hall is a grand construction, crafted specifically for the fateful game of dice that leads to the Pandavas' ruin. In this hall, through deceit, they lose all their possessions and their kingdom, resulting in a period of exile. The hall becomes a symbol of the precariousness of human prosperity and the destructive potential of unchecked desires.

Kingdom of Matsya

During their thirteenth year of exile, the Pandavas take refuge in the Kingdom of Matsya, residing incognito in King Virata’s court. The Kauravas’ invasion of Matsya presses the Pandavas back into conflict, forcing Arjuna to reveal his true identity prematurely. This upheaval underscores the relentless nature of destiny and the futility of evading one's responsibilities.

Indra’s Heaven

Indra’s Heaven, the celestial abode for valorous warriors fallen in battle, is one of many paradises described in the epic. Arjuna's journey to this ethereal realm during his exile to acquire divine weapons marks a critical phase of his spiritual and martial education. However, Yudhishthira’s ultimate realization that both heaven and hell are illusions questions the very nature of reality within the epic's philosophical framework.

Ganges River

The Ganges River, revered across the Indian subcontinent, holds a sacred place within the Mahabharata as well. Personified as a river goddess and the mother of Bhishma, the Ganges intertwines with the epic’s narratives, representing purity and transcendence amidst the tale’s turbulent events. As both a geographical and spiritual landmark, it underscores the interconnection between the physical and metaphysical realms.

Narrative Technique—Frame Stories

The intricate structure of the Mahabharata is partly due to its format of interwoven stories and narratives. It begins with two introductory frame stories that guide readers to the central epic—the great battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Initially, readers are introduced to Sauti, a bard who narrates the Mahabharata to listeners in a forest. Sauti retells the story as he heard it from the sage Vaisampayana, who learned it from Vyasa, the poem's author. This narration forms the second frame story, where Vaisampayana recites the majority of the Mahabharata during King Janamejaya's snake sacrifice. Within the primary narrative, several sages, or rishis, like Markandeya and Vrihadaswa, share legends, folktales, and stories that highlight morals or themes related to the main plot. Occasionally, both Sauti and Vaisampayana interject with brief remarks. This layered structure allows for interruptions in the narrative flow, multiple perspectives on events, and extensive digressions, characteristic of this grand poem.

Sanskrit Literature and Versification

The Mahabharata is a prime example of classical Sanskrit poetry. Similar to Latin, classical Sanskrit is no longer a spoken language, although its modern form is still taught in many schools. The language used in the Mahabharata differs slightly from Vedic, an earlier form of Sanskrit in which sacred Hindu texts like the Vedas and Upanishads were written. The Mahabharata, extensively studied and translated, is often called an epic but is more accurately a purana, meaning "ancient tale" in verse. Initially composed as a single long poem, it expanded over time with additional scenes, stories, and materials on ethics, law, philosophy, history, and religion. The fundamental unit of the poem is the epic sloka, consisting of two lines with alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. Various other meters are also used, all adhering to the formal and strict rules of classical Sanskrit poetics.

Language and Style

Several stylistic features of the Mahabharata suggest that the poem was originally part of an oral tradition before it was documented in writing. These features include repeated words and phrases, the use of clichés, and certain stereotypical descriptions, particularly in the many battle scenes within the poem. Despite this, the language of the work is generally considered simple and restrained. Often, the narrative downplays the more gruesome aspects of war. However, much of the Mahabharata's imagery remains vivid and highly evocative. Metaphors and similes—comparisons that describe one thing by relating it to another—are frequently used to highlight the superhuman qualities and feats of the poem's heroes. Exaggeration, a common element in mythic storytelling, is employed to emphasize the grandeur and scale of the events depicted. For instance, Arjuna can release dozens of arrows in a single second, and during the war, the arrows shot by all combatants can obscure the sun.

A significant portion of the story is conveyed through dialogue—conversations—or individual speeches. At times, a character's thoughts are expressed in soliloquy, as if spoken aloud even when no one else is present. Additionally, the poet uses the classic epic technique of foreshadowing by mentioning or hinting at future events before they happen. For example, Gandhari predicts that the Pandavas will triumph in the war because dharma is on their side, long before the battle concludes. Lastly, many characters are characterized with epithets, symbolic names that describe notable traits, or have allegorical names. Duryodhana's name, for example, means "hard to conquer."

1000 BC (the era in which the Mahabharata is set): Three millennia ago, the area now known as India was governed by feudal kings and princes, who inspired characters like Yudhishthira, Duryodhana, Virata, and Salya. These princes frequently engaged in conflicts over land, prestige, or wealth, and ruled through a system comparable to that of Medieval Europe.

Late twentieth century: Modern India consists of several states and is a federal, secular republic, similar to the United States of America. As the world's largest democracy, key figures and institutions in Indian governance include the president, prime minister, and the two houses of parliament.

1000 BC: Society in classical India was strictly organized by the caste system, a hereditary social hierarchy. Warriors held power and showed reverence to priests, or Brahmins. The majority of the population were farmers, and slavery was widespread, with slaves serving the higher social strata.

Late twentieth century: Slavery has been abolished in India for over 150 years. Although the caste system persists to some extent, social mobility is now possible. While still a developing nation, India has seen significant growth in capitalism during the twentieth century and is progressing towards industrialization.

1000 BC: Classical Indian society was predominantly patriarchal, with women occupying subordinate roles in most aspects of life. Women like Draupadi, Gandhari, and Kunti were primarily seen as wives and mothers. Their value was largely measured by their ability to bear sons, their obedience to their husbands, and their personal beauty.

Today: Educational opportunities and democracy have significantly improved the status and living standards of women in India. Although women still face secondary roles in many societal areas, restrictions are gradually easing. From 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1984, Indira Gandhi served as prime minister of India. Despite these advances, many employment sectors remain challenging for women to enter.

1000 BC: Polygamy, where one man had multiple wives, was common, especially among wealthy and powerful men. Polyandry, where one woman had multiple husbands, like Draupadi and the five Pandavas, was rare. This instance in the Mahabharata should not be seen as typical of classical Indian society.

Late twentieth century: Polygamy and polyandry are nearly non-existent in contemporary India.

1000 BC: Warfare between tribes or kingdoms was a regular occurrence, and warriors were highly esteemed members of society.

Late twentieth century: Armed conflicts have affected modern India just as they have the rest of the world. The causes of these conflicts are diverse, but many stem from religious differences or territorial disagreements. Since the late 1940s, India and the predominantly Muslim nation of Pakistan have been at odds over a contested area in the Kashmir region, with tensions between the two countries continuing to this day. In 1974, India shocked both its neighbors and the global community by testing an atomic bomb.

The Mahabharata was transformed into a full-length stage production by Jean-Claude Carriere and debuted in Avignon, France, in 1985. Peter Brook's English rendition of Carriere's play toured internationally in 1987-88 with a diverse cast. Brook subsequently directed a five-and-a-half-hour film adaptation of the Mahabharata, which was broadcast globally in 1989 and is available on videocassette from The Parabola Video Library.

Sources for Further Study

Buck, Philo M. "Kama, Karma, and Nirvana," in The Golden Thread, The Macmillan Company, 1931, pp. 186-211. Examines the cultural and religious contexts of the Mahabharata.

Buck, William, reteller. Mahabharata, University of California Press, 1973, 417 p. A highly accessible prose adaptation and abridgment of the epic poem. Despite making minor changes and additions, Buck's translation remains vivid and engaging.

Campbell, Joseph. "The Indian Golden Age," in The Masks of God: Oriental Mythology, 1962. Reprint by Penguin Books, 1976, pp. 321-70. Discusses the character of Vyasa, the legendary author of the Mahabharata, and the symbolic struggle between light and darkness within the text.

Murdoch, John. The Mahabharata: An English Abridgment with Introduction, Notes, and Review, 1898. Reprint by Asian Educational Services, 1987, 160 p. Provides detailed prose summaries of both the main story and supplementary material in the Mahabharata. Also includes historical and cultural background, along with critical analysis of the work.

Stone, Charles. "Historical Suggestions in the Ancient Hindu Epic, the Mahabharata," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. II, 1885. Reprint by Kraus Reprint, 1971, pp. 272-92. Overview of the historical contexts influencing the creation of the Mahabharata.

Sukthankar, V. S. On the Meaning of the Mahabharata, The Asiatic Society of Bombay, 1957, 146 p. Interprets the Mahabharata on three levels: mundane, ethical, and transcendental.

Tharoor, Shashi. The Great Indian Novel, Arcade Publishing, 1989. A modern retelling of the Mahabharata that incorporates characters and events from twentieth-century Indian political and cultural life.

Van Buitenen, J. A. B. Introduction to The Mahabharata: The Books of the Beginning, Vol. I, edited and translated by J. A. B. van Buitenen, The University of Chicago Press, 1973, pp. xiii-xlviii. Analyzes the narrative structure of the Mahabharata as a complex yet cohesive whole.

Van Nooten, Barend A. The Mahabharata, Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1971, 153 p. A comprehensive study of the Mahabharata, covering its narrative structure, language, influence, and critical history.

_______, "The Sanskrit Epics" in Heroic Epic and Saga: An Introduction to the World's Great Folk Epics, Felix J. Oinas, Indiana University Press, 1978, pp. 49-75. Examines the narrative structure and language of the Mahabharata and another significant Indian epic, the Ramayana.

Winternitz, Moriz. "The Popular Epics and the Puranas," in his A History of Indian Literature, Vol I, translated by S. Ketkar, revised edition, 1926. Reprint by University of Calcutta, 1962, pp. 273-416. Surveys the variety of stories and legends, as well as non-fictional content, included in the Mahabharata.

Wolpert, Stanley. "North Indian Conquest and Unification (ca 1000-450 BC)," in his A New History of India, third edition, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 37-54. Explores the historical period, culture, and philosophy reflected in the Mahabharata.

Zaehner, R.C. Introduction to Hinduism, second edition, Oxford University Press, 1966, pp. 1-13. Provides an overview of Hinduism and discusses its relationship to the Mahabharata.