chaotic. This is the ‘‘continuous anarchy’’ that Gallimard describes in the play.

One aim of the Cultural Revolution was the complete restructuring of the educational system to make it less elitist. The goal was to eliminate the distinction between manual labor and intellectual work, and between urban and rural. Urban workers, young people, intellectuals, and artists were sent to work on farms where they engaged in physical labor and were forced to study the prevailing political ideology. This is the background of Act 2, scenes 9 and 10 in the play, when Comrade Chin holds a placard reading, "The Actor Renounces His Decadent Profession’’ and Song says he spent four years working on a farm from 1966 to 1970.

Cultural Stereotyping

The cultural stereotyping of Asians by the West that is a central theme of M. Butterfly has a long history. Peter Kwan, in his article, ‘‘Invention, Inversion and Intervention: The Oriental Woman in The World of Suzie Wong, M. Butterfly, and The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert,’’ writes, "The figure of the Oriental Woman, and her relationship with the white man who becomes her lover is a theme repeatedly mined by Hollywood studios ... The Oriental Woman is meek, shy, passive, childlike, innocent and naive. She relies and is dependent on the white hero to satisfy her most basic needs and to perform the most basic tasks.’’ Kwan draws on the work of feminist scholar Gina Marchetti, who in Romance and the "Yellow Peril’’ analyzed seventeen mainstream films, made between 1958 and 1986, which featured romantic and sexual relationships between white men and Asian women. Marchetti concluded that the "myth'' of the submissive Oriental woman ‘‘endures and continues to function not only as a romantic justification for traditional female roles but also as a political legitimation of American hegemony internationally.’’ This conclusion is a striking echo of the theme of M. Butterfly, in which cultural stereotyping is seen as in part responsible for the Vietnam war.

The meek Asian woman is not the only stereotype that American popular culture has imposed on the East. As Elaine H. Kim writes in Asian-American Literature, ‘‘The power-hungry despot, the helpless heathen, the sensuous dragon lady, the comical loyal servant, and the pudgy, desexed detective who talks about Confucius are all part of the standard American image of the Asian.’’

Setting and Structure

M. Butterfly is a theatrical tapestry woven across multiple locations and eras, beginning in the present with Gallimard’s imprisonment in Paris. The narrative unfolds through Gallimard’s reminiscences, transporting the audience back to Beijing from 1960 to 1970. Scenes take place in various settings such as the German Ambassador's house, French Embassy, Gallimard's apartment, and the vibrant streets of Beijing. A flashback to 1947 in Aix-en-Provence, France, and later scenes in Paris from 1966 to 1968, culminate in a courtroom in 1986 Paris, creating a rich, layered backdrop that mirrors the complex themes of the narrative.

Foreshadowing and Thematic Clues

Before the dialogue begins, M. Butterfly employs foreshadowing to lay the groundwork for its central themes. The opening scene, set in Gallimard's cell, features Song performing a traditional Chinese dance while dressed as a woman, accompanied initially by Peking Opera music. This auditory and visual fusion of Chinese and Western elements heralds the impending cultural and ideological clashes. The transition from Chinese music to the Western opera Madame Butterfly reveals the play's exploration of East-West dichotomies and sets the stage for the unfolding drama.

Flashbacks as Narrative Device

The play navigates its expansive timeline through the strategic use of flashbacks. Gallimard serves as the narrator, recounting past events from his current vantage point in prison. Act 1 primarily unfolds through these flashbacks, detailing Gallimard’s early interactions with Song. Act 2 resumes in the present before delving back into memory, while Act 3, scene 3, marks a return to the present as Gallimard embraces his transformation into Madame Butterfly. The cyclical structure, looping back to the beginning, enriches the narrative with symmetry and reflection.

With the opening and closing words — "Butterfly, Butterfly" — the play creates a structural and thematic echo. Initially spoken by Gallimard as he observes Song, they are reversed at the conclusion, with Song addressing Gallimard, symbolizing the inversion of traditional gender and cultural roles. This reversal is poignantly underlined by the reference to Puccini’s Madame Butterfly, where Pinkerton's remorseful cry "Butterfly? Butterfly?" marks a dramatic parallel.

Direct Address: Breaking the Fourth Wall

The technique of direct address is pivotal in M. Butterfly, allowing Gallimard to engage the audience directly, sharing his thoughts and motivations. This technique serves to introduce flashbacks, as seen when Gallimard recounts his first private encounter with Song, and it persists to provide commentary on events, such as his reaction to Song’s letters. Direct address functions as a "distancing device," disrupting the theatrical illusion and encouraging audiences to view the unfolding drama with critical detachment rather than emotional absorption.

As the narrative progresses, Song assumes the role of narrator, reflecting the play’s thematic inversion of roles. This shift underscores the deconstruction of romantic and cultural stereotypes that the play scrutinizes. By frequently stepping out of the immediate action to converse with the audience, the characters invite viewers to consider the artifice of the performance and the constructed nature of the myths being portrayed.

Conclusion of Thematic Exploration

The intertwining of setting, narrative structure, and theatrical techniques in M. Butterfly crafts a complex exploration of cultural and gender identity. Through foreshadowing, flashbacks, and direct address, the play not only tells a compelling story but also challenges preconceived notions of East-West relations and the dynamics of power and desire. By encouraging a critical engagement with these themes, Hwang's work achieves a profound commentary on the nature of identity and perception.

1960s: The United States fights in the Vietnam war. In 1969, more than 500,000 American troops are stationed in South Vietnam. Casualties mount. More than 10,000 American soldiers are killed in Vietnam this year.

1980s: Vietnam no longer exists as two separate, independent nations; it is one nation under communist rule.

Today: The United States has normal diplomatic relations with communist-ruled Vietnam, but expresses frustration at the slow pace of Vietnam's economic and political reform. Vietnam continues to ask for aid in dealing with the continuing environmental and health effects of Agent Orange, a highly toxic defoliant used by U.S. forces during the Vietnam war.

1960s: In 1966 China begins the Cultural Revolution, a period of upheaval that lasts until 1976, to try to rekindle revolutionary fervor amongst the young.

1980s: In 1989, hundreds of non-violent, pro-democracy students are massacred by Chinese troops in Beijing's Tianamen Square.

Today: U.S. policy towards China is a major topic of political debate. Human rights activists oppose the granting of permanent trading relations with China, but pro-business groups argue that it will be good for American trade.

1960s: Asian-American writers find it difficult to get their works published. Even when they succeed, their books sell poorly, are soon out of print, and are regarded, if they are noticed at all, as "minority" or "ethnic" literature.

1980s: In the late 1980s, around the time that M. Butterfly, is written, there is an explosion of interest in Asian-American writing. Amy Tan's The Joy Luck Club (1989) becomes a bestseller, and acclaimed Asian-American writer Maxine Hong Kingston publishes her first novel, Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book (1989).

Today: Hundreds of books by and about Asian Americans are in print. Many of them have mass-market appeal, and Asian-American writers are on the cutting edge of literary achievement.

1960s: In 1965, the Immigration Act removes discriminatory quotas against immigrants from Asia. Asian immigration to the United States undergoes a rapid increase.

1980s: Because of their economic success and strong family structures, Asian Americans are sometimes referred to as the ''model minority''; some Asian Americans see this as yet another stereotype imposed on them by the dominant white culture.

Today: According to a public policy report issued by a team of respected scholars in March 2000, Asian Americans, no matter how long they have lived in the United States, are still often perceived as an ‘‘alien presence.’’

M. Butterfly was adapted as a film in 1993 and released by Geffen Films through Warner Brothers. Hwang wrote the screenplay and David Cronenberg directed. Jeremy Irons played Gallimard and John Lone played Song. The producer was Gabriella Martinelli.

An audio version of the play was made in 1996, starring the original Broadway cast: John Lithgow as Gallimard and B. D. Wong as Song. It was produced by L.A. Theatre Works as part of its Audio Theatre Series.

SOURCES

Brustein, Robert, " Transcultural Blends,’’ in New Republic, April 25, 1988, pp. 28-29.

‘‘A Conversation With David Henry Hwang,’’ in Bearing Dreams, Shaping Visions: Asian Pacific American Perspectives, edited by Linda A. Revilla, Gail M. Nomura, Shawn Wong, and Shirley Hune. Washington State University Press, 1993, pp. 185-191.

DiGaetani, John Louie, ‘‘M. Butterfly: An Interview with David Henry Hwang,’’ in Drama Review, Vol. 33, No. 3, Fall 1989, pp. 142-43.

Henry, William A., III, "Politics and Strange Bedfellows,’’ in Time, April 4, 1988, p. 74 in Nation, April 23, 1988.

Hodgson, Moira, ‘‘M. Butterfly, pp. 577-78.

Hwang, David Henry, "Afterword," in M. Butterfly, by David Henry Hwang, Penguin, 1989, pp. 94-100.

Kim, Elaine H., Asian-American Literature: An Introduction to the Writings and Their Social Context, Temple University Press, 1982, p. 3.

Kroll, Jack, ‘‘The Diplomat and the Diva,’’ in Newsweek, April 4, 1988, p. 75.

Kwan, Peter, ‘‘Invention, Inversion and Intervention: The Oriental Woman in The World of Suzie Wong, M. Butterfly, and The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert,'' in Asian Law Journal, Vol. 99, 1998.

Loo, Chalsa, "M Butterfly: A Feminist Perspective,’’ in Bearing Dreams, Shaping Visions: Asian Pacific American Perspectives, edited by Linda A. Revilla, Gail M. Nomura, Shawn Wong, and Shirley Hune, Washington State University Press, 1993, pp. 177-180.

Marchetti, Gina, Romance and the ‘‘Yellow Peril’’: Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood, University of California Press, 1994, p. 108.

Rich, Frank, ‘‘M. Butterfly, a Story of a Strange Love, Conflict and Betrayal,’’ in New York Times, March 21, 1988, p. C13.

Richards, David, "Chinese Puzzle at the National: A Curious M. Butterfly," in Washington Post, February 11, 1988, p. C1.

FURTHER READING

Chang, Williamson B.C.,"M. Butterfly: Passivity, Deviousness, and the Invisibility of the Asian-American Male,’’ in Bearing Dreams, Shaping Visions: Asian Pacific American Perspectives, edited by Linda A. Revilla, Gail M. Nomura, Shawn Wong, and Shirley Hune. Washington State University Press, 1993.
In this text, Chang argues that the play lacks a character with whom Asian males can identify because Song embodies a negative stereotype of Asians as devious and untrustworthy.

Deeney, John J., ‘‘Of monkeys and butterflies: transformation in M. H. Kingston's Tripmaster Monkey and D. H. Hwang's M. Butterfly,’’ in MELUS, Vol. 18, No. 4, Winter 1993, p. 21.
This article is an analysis of how both works present characters seeking to transform themselves in reaction to stereotyped images that keep them from being recognized as individuals.

Gerard, Jeremy, "David Hwang: Riding on the Hyphen,’’ in New York Times Magazine, March 13, 1988, pp. 44-5, 88-9.
Gerard's article is an overview of Hwang's life and career up to M. Butterfly, including many observations by Hwang himself.

Henry III, William A., "When East and West Collide: David Henry Hwang Proves Bedfellows Make Strange Politics in M. Butterfly, a Surprise Stage Success on Three Continents.'' in Time, Vol. 134, No. 7, August 14, 1989, p. 62.
This overview of Hwang's early life and career emphasizes the success of M. Butterfly, suggesting that Hwang has the potential to become the most important American dramatist since Arthur Miller.

Lyons, Bobby, '‘‘Making His Muscles Work For Himself’: An Interview with David Henry Hwang,’’ in The Literary Review, Vol. 42, No. 2, Winter 1999, p. 230.
During this interview, Hwang discusses the question of identity in his plays, including M. Butterfly, and notes that his work has been influenced by the plays of Sam Shepard and Anton Chekhov. Jazz has also influenced his theatrical approach.

Street, Douglas, David Henry Hwang, Boise State University Press, 1989.
This book is a concise analysis of Hwang's work up to and including M. Butterfly, highlighting the many ways in which Hwang combines the American with the Asian experience.