greater moderation and avoid offending the Church in any way. “The Roman Church is the apex of the world, secular and temporal,” Cajetan tells Martin, “and it may constrain with its secular arm any who have once received that faith and gone astray.” Despite this threat, Martin refuses to retract his infamous sermon, and Cajetan informs him he will be released from the Augustinian Order. Although Martin later writes to Pope Leo X and pleads for an interview, in 1519 (act 2, scene 5) the pope views him as a “wild pig in our vinyard” that “must be hunted down and shot.” Thus, in 1520 (act 2, scene 6), soon after receiving from Rome the papal bull of condemnation, Martin and his followers in Wittenberg burn the bull, books of canon law, papal decretals, and all documents relating to the Catholic Church and Pope Leo, who, according to Martin, is “a glittering worm in excrement.”

Because much of the play’s first two acts consists of dramatic reenactments of historical events germane to Martin Luther’s religious career, the first two of three scenes in act 3 derive their substance from two such events: first, the Diet of Worms (April 18, 1521), during which Martin is brought before Emperor Charles V, and Ulrich von Hutten, the archbishop of Trier, and Johan von Eck; second, a scene in Wittenberg at the bitter end of the Peasants’ War (1525). In the former scene, Martin is interrogated and told he must retract his numerous books—many of which supposedly contain heretical statements—or be officially excommunicated from the Catholic Church. Martin refuses to retract them. In the latter scene, Martin is accosted by a battle-weary knight who berates him for turning his back upon the German peasants after being the catalyst for their revolt against the ruling class and the Catholic Church. With his opposition to the now-ended war transformed into his expressed belief that the slaughtered peasants got what they deserved, Martin dismisses the knight and waits in a small chapel for his bride, Katherine von Bora.

Noticeably tired in the final act’s third scene, and now the father of an infant son five years after his marriage to Katherine, Martin confesses to Staupitz that, instead of God’s voice, in the past he has heard only his own. Moments before he slips into prideful reverie by recalling his rebellious stance in Worms, he prays: “Oh, Lord, I believe. I believe. I do believe. Only help my unbelief.”

Through the use of a dark screen as backdrop, dim lights, and the seemingly cramped enclosure of a small chapel in the play’s opening scene, Osborne establishes an intimate and private atmosphere for Martin’s introduction. In the second scene, through the use of various dramatic devices, the playwright directs the audience’s attention to the interior, psychological realm of Martin’s life. By so doing he indicates that the play will not simply be a reenactment of historic events, expresses the internal battle Martin is fighting with himself, and primes the audience to consider Martin’s psychology in the following scenes when such devices are absent.

The second scene is overshadowed by a huge knife, “like a butcher’s,” hanging several feet above the stage with its cutting edge turned upward; across the blade hangs a man’s naked body, the head hanging down. Below the knife is an enormous cone, “like the inside of a vast barrel,” and this object—surrounded by darkness—is filled with intense light. When Martin appears onstage, he walks slowly through the cone to its opening downstage. He is about to perform his first Mass, and it is clear by what he says to himself that he is racked with spiritual doubt. The central focus of his soliloquy is on his lost innocence, spoken of as a child: “I lost the body of a child; and I was afraid, and I went back to find it. But I’m still afraid. . . . The lost body of a child, hanging on a mother’s tit, and close to the warm, big body of a man, and I can’t find it.”

Afraid that he cannot find the lost sense of belonging he once knew, he is also afraid, he says, of “the darkness.” The cone from which he emerges into darkness, therefore, represents the mental tunnel back to his past, a tunnel narrow at one end (distant past) and wide at the other (recent past). Outside the tunnel, in Martin’s present of self-doubt and insecurity, is bewildering darkness. The knife and body suspended over it clearly represent the torturous ordeal Martin is suffering and the requisite severance of his head and heart from his sexuality and mobility—a severance effected through living according to vows of celibacy and poverty. Although neither the butcher’s knife nor the cone appears after this scene, the knife is alluded to in relation to God in act 3, wherein Martin asserts, “In the teeth of life we seem to die, but God says no—in the teeth of death we live. If He butchers us, He makes us live.”

Instead of interior, symbolic imagery, in the remaining acts Osborne employs simply painted backdrops suggesting flatness rather than depth, caricature rather than portraiture, and “men in time rather than particular man in the unconscious.” In other words, once Martin’s unconscious matrix and related complexes have been exposed for the audience’s consideration, all he says or does afterward finds its impetus in his pre-Augustinian psychological and emotional needs. Understanding history, Osborne suggests, demands that one delve below the surface of recorded historical events.

Germany and the Holy Roman Empire

In 962, the Holy Roman Empire was reestablished, encompassing regions like Germany and northern Italy. However, ongoing conflicts between the pope and the emperor hindered the establishment of a strong central government. Over time, Holy Roman emperors relinquished much of their authority to German princes, who governed their own regions in return for military backing. By the time of the Protestant Reformation, Germany, which formed the heart of the Holy Roman Empire, consisted of around three hundred autonomous states.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was born in 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony (Germany), a town known for mining. His parents were well-off and ensured he received a quality education. Following his father's wishes, Luther began studying law at the University of Erfurt. However, after making a vow during a frightening thunderstorm, he joined the Reformed Congregation of the Eremetical Order of St. Augustine at Erfurt in 1505. He was ordained as a priest in April 1507 and conducted his first mass in May of the same year. A talented scholar, Luther was selected for advanced theological studies. In 1510, he traveled to Rome and was dismayed by the frivolity and spiritual neglect he observed among the Roman clergy. By 1512, Luther had earned his doctorate in theology and became a professor at the University of Wittenberg.

Luther was increasingly troubled by doubts regarding his own salvation. He turned to the Scriptures and discovered a benevolent God who granted salvation to the faithful, even to sinners. He concluded that only faith in God could lead to salvation. With these new beliefs, in 1516, Luther began to protest the sale of indulgences that promised salvation. On October 31, 1517, he nailed his 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg. In 1520, Luther published three works that elaborated on his ideas for church reform and argued for German control over its religious affairs. He also called upon German princes to assist in reforming the church in Germany. In 1521, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V summoned Luther to Worms to appear before the Imperial Diet, a council of the empire's rulers. When Luther refused to retract his writings, he was excommunicated and banished from the empire. Nevertheless, he had the backing of many German princes, and his benefactor, Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, sheltered him in the Wartburg, a castle in southeastern Germany.

Luther dedicated much of his later life to translating the Bible into German, enabling common people to understand the Scriptures. He also focused on promoting his new gospel, the "priesthood of all believers," which asserted that individuals could connect with God without needing a priest or intermediary. This doctrine was revolutionary, as it eliminated the necessity for a priesthood or church hierarchy. Furthermore, Luther founded the Lutheran Church, which emphasized simplicity in religious practices. Unlike Catholic priests, Lutheran ministers served primarily to guide their congregations toward genuine faith. The Lutheran Church recognized only two sacraments, baptism and communion, as opposed to the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church. Before long, Lutheranism became the state religion in much of northern Germany. In 1525, Luther married Katherine von Bora, a former nun. In his later years, he grew more conservative and lamented that his protest had fractured Christendom's unity. Until his passing in Eisleben in 1546, Luther continued to write essays and pamphlets.

The Protestant Reformation

By the early fifteenth century, a group of European intellectuals and scholars, spearheaded by the esteemed biblical scholar Erasmus, were openly criticizing the corruption and moral laxity within the Roman Catholic Church. They were also wary of the pope's power, which he wielded to raise armies and seize territories. Another major concern was the church's practice of selling indulgences. These were pardons issued by the pope, which people could purchase to reduce their time in purgatory—a transitional state where souls atoned for sins before reaching heaven. When Pope Leo X sanctioned the sale of indulgences in Germany to fund the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, Martin Luther responded by posting his 95 Theses on the door of Wittenberg Castle's church. In these theses, he criticized the sale of indulgences and other papal practices, advocating that Christian practices should be based solely on the Bible, with all other practices abolished. Luther's bold action sparked the Protestant Reformation, during which Europeans began protesting against the Catholic Church's practices.

The Reformation rapidly spread throughout northern Europe. However, as people broke away from established church doctrines, some reformers held beliefs that differed from Luther’s. Consequently, many Protestants began forming their own sects, each with distinct ideas about salvation. For instance, Calvinism, which originated in Switzerland, was based on the concept of predestination—the belief that God had predetermined who would be saved even before their birth.

By 1560, significant Protestant communities had emerged in England, Scotland, Sweden, Denmark, and parts of Germany, France, Poland, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. In response, church leaders initiated their reform movement, known as the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation. By the mid-1500s, the church had prohibited the sale of indulgences and church positions and established new guidelines for clergy behavior. However, the church dismissed the Protestant focus on self-discipline and the belief that individuals could achieve faith without a priest's mediation.

The Church of England

During the 1500s, England experienced a protest against the Roman Catholic Church, albeit for different reasons. King Henry VIII, who had previously defended the church against Luther, requested a divorce from his wife in 1529 because she had not produced a male heir. When the pope denied his request, Henry renounced papal authority and declared himself the head of the Church in England. He compelled English bishops to approve his divorce. The newly established Church of England made minimal changes to Catholic rituals, but England's separation from Rome was cemented when Henry, seeking financial resources, dissolved the country's monasteries and convents and sold most of their lands to English nobles.

The Peasants’ War

The Peasants' War, a rebellion involving German peasants and other impoverished urban classes, began in 1524. Inspired by Luther and his reforms, these peasants believed they could implement changes in their lives, such as choosing their pastors, reducing tithes and taxes, avoiding serfdom, and having just courts. Although other Protestant leaders supported the revolt, Luther opposed it. His denunciation contributed to the peasants' defeat in 1526, resulting in approximately 100,000 peasant deaths.

The Wars of Religion

Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants erupted across Europe. In 1545, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V launched attacks on Protestant strongholds in Germany. Protestant princes and free cities formed alliances for defense, but in 1547, Charles defeated them in battle. Despite this victory, he could not diminish their influence or that of the Lutheran Church. In 1555, Charles and the Protestant princes signed the Peace of Augsburg, permitting each prince to choose the religion for his territory, with most northern German princes opting for the Lutheran Church. The 1500s also witnessed bloody civil wars in the Netherlands and France. In 1588, Spain attempted, but failed, to invade England to overthrow the Protestant monarchy.

Epic Theater

Many critics concurred that Luther aspired to be an epic drama similar to the works of German playwright Bertolt Brecht. Epic theater is a style of drama that presents a sequence of loosely connected scenes. Frequently, a narrator figure will engage the audience with analysis or argument. Brecht's approach to epic theater involved using "alienating" effects to encourage the audience to think critically, rather than emotionally, about the play and its characters. Luther demonstrates a significant Brechtian influence, particularly from his play The Life of Galileo. Similar to Brecht's works, Luther comprises a series of brief scenes, most of which can stand alone. The stage design, meticulously described by Osborne, is evocative and rich with symbolism and iconography. A choral figure, here the Knight, introduces the time and place of each scene and provides narrative background, especially regarding Luther’s involvement in the Peasants’ War. Like Brecht, Osborne aimed to depict contemporary social issues and realities on stage; in Luther, the main character embodies the Angry Young Man of 1960s British society, expressing anger towards the entrenched sociopolitical system he inhabits.

Though many critics viewed Luther as epic theater, scholar Simon Trussler strongly disagreed with this interpretation. In his work Plays of John Osborne, he applied Brecht’s criterion that epic theater appeals "less to the feelings than to the spectator’s reason." He argued that the play is "dramatic" rather than epic, as Luther’s "primary appeal is indeed emotional rather than rational."

Symbolism

A significant aspect of symbolism in Luther is the protagonist's poor physical health. He experiences seizures, insomnia, boils, and chronic constipation. These physical ailments reflect his mental struggles, and his inability to physically purge himself symbolizes his challenge in breaking free from the church’s doctrines. Luther himself interprets his religious turmoil in terms of physicality. For instance, during a conversation with Von Staupitz, just before posting his 95 theses, Luther compares himself to "a ripe stool in the world’s straining anus, and at any moment we’re about to let each other go." When he ultimately develops his doctrine (that salvation is based solely on faith in God, not on good deeds), he does so while enduring another bout of constipation; with the realization that "The just shall live by faith," Luther recalls, "[M]y pain vanished, my bowels flushed and I could get up."

On a different level, as Alan Carter noted in John Osborne, "To depict Martin's constipation, his indigestion, his excessive sweating, is to portray him as an ordinary person. A man who would resonate with the earthy German peasantry and be capable of stirring them to action. He stands in stark contrast to the effeminate, sophisticated Latin churchmen of the era." This appeal to the "common folk" is crucial because, as the Knight mentions, Luther helped people start to envision Christ "as a man like us, ... that His supper is a simple meal like their own ... a straightforward meal with no embellishments and no words."

Narrative

Luther lacks a strong narrative drive in the traditional sense; spanning several decades, it does not recount the full story behind Luther's protest. Alan Carter observed in John Osborne that since Osborne is "weakest as a storyteller," he "makes the play resemble a medieval historical pageant, filled with vivid theatrical moments." The play as a whole illustrates an explicit change in Luther's development of a more personal relationship with God and an implicit change in the transformation his beliefs have brought to Germany. The narrative drive concentrates more on Luther's internal struggles with his own doubts than on external conflicts with church leaders.

1500s: During the 1500s, the Roman Catholic Church in Europe experiences division due to the Protestant Reformation. This movement is spearheaded by Martin Luther in Germany, John Calvin in France, and King Henry VIII in England. Unlike Henry, who breaks away from the church to obtain a divorce, the Protestants aim to revive the Christian faith as outlined in the Bible. Their efforts successfully diminish the Roman Catholic Church's influence across northern Europe, parts of central Europe, as well as in England and Switzerland.

Today: The Roman Catholic Church is embroiled in scandal following disclosures of child abuse by priests. In response to demands for change, church leaders convene a significant meeting in Rome to tackle these issues.

1500s: Before the Protestant Reformation, Western Europeans, including those who speak German, adhere to the Roman Catholic interpretation of Christianity. Although the pope, based in Rome, serves as the symbolic leader of the church, his authority is weakened by cardinals, bishops, and local nobility. Many popes of this era are infamous for their corruption, lavish lifestyles, and immoral behavior.

Today: The Roman Catholic Church boasts more adherents worldwide than any other religious group. By the early 1990s, its membership reaches approximately 995.8 million, accounting for 18.8 percent of the global population. Europe and Latin America host the largest Catholic populations. However, in Germany, Lutherans still exceed Catholics in number. In 1995, nearly 41 percent of Germans identify as Lutheran, compared to just under 34 percent who identify as Catholic.

1500s: In the 1500s, Germany is part of the Holy Roman Empire and is composed of around three hundred independent states, each governed by Christian princes. These princes send representatives to the Diet, the Empire's legislative assembly, where they frequently hold significant sway.

Today: Germany is a federal republic with a chancellor serving as the head of the government.

The 1974 film Luther was shot in the United States. Stacey Keach took on the role of Luther, with direction by Guy Green. Edward Anhalt adapted the screenplay for the film.