a concern poignantly addressed in Silko's work.

The Legacy of the Pueblo Indians

Leslie Silko's heritage as a Laguna Pueblo Indian infuses her storytelling with historical depth. The Pueblo Indians, with a cultural lineage tracing back to the first millennium A.D., are renowned for their cliff dwellings in areas intersecting Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah. These impressive structures, like those found in Mesa Verde National Park, served as enduring symbols of ingenuity and resilience. By the 13th century, many Pueblo Indians had migrated southward to New Mexico, where their descendants, including Silko, continued to uphold their rich cultural traditions.

Progress in Native American Rights

The political activism of the 1960s and 1970s laid groundwork for advancements in Native American rights in subsequent decades. The passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act in 1978 signaled a federal commitment to safeguarding tribal rituals tied to sacred lands. Further legislative milestones included the 1979 Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). These acts collectively aimed to restore cultural artifacts and human remains to their rightful tribal custodians, marking steps toward rectifying historical injustices.

In sum, the Native American Literary Renaissance and concurrent political activism were pivotal in reshaping dialogues around Native American culture and rights. Through literature and protest, these communities asserted their voices, demanding recognition and respect for their heritage in a rapidly changing world.

"Lullaby" was first published in Storyteller (1981), a book where Silko blends autobiographical reflections, short stories, poetry, family photographs (taken by her father), and traditional songs. The book focuses on the oral tradition of storytelling in Native American culture. Through various formats, Silko strives to recreate the essence of oral storytelling in written English. She explores the transformative power of storytelling in her characters' lives and its role in preserving cultural traditions and intergenerational bonds, especially in a matrilineal line from grandmother to granddaughter. Due to this emphasis, the physical setting of "Lullaby" is not central to its plot. The story begins with Ayah, an elderly Native American woman, leaning against a tree by a stream, reflecting on some of the most tragic and joyful moments of her life, including the influence of her grandmother: "She was an old woman now, and her life had become memories." She recalls watching her mother weave on a large loom while her grandmother spun wool into yarn. She remembers her mother and the elderly woman who assisted in the birth of her first child, Jimmie. However, she also remembers the day a white man came to inform her that Jimmie had died in a helicopter crash during the war. Since Ayah did not speak English, her husband, Chato, had to convey the devastating news. As Ayah reflects on her life, including the loss of her children, the growing distance between her and her husband, and other heartbreaks, the narrative gradually moves to the present. In recent times, Ayah and Chato have started receiving federal assistance checks to survive—Chato would immediately cash the check and spend it at the bar. In the story's present, Ayah goes to the bar to find him. When she doesn't find him there, she ventures into the snow to search for him and eventually sees him walking home. They stop to rest, and as he lies down in the snow, she realizes he is dying. She wraps a blanket around him and begins to sing a lullaby her grandmother used to sing to her: "And she sang the only song she knew how to sing for babies. She could not remember if she had ever sung it to her children, but she knew that her grandmother had sung it and her mother had sung it."

In "Lullaby," Silko crafts a rich tapestry of narrative technique and thematic depth by blending past memories with the present experiences of her protagonist, Ayah. This intricate storytelling mirrors Ayah's own nonlinear thought patterns, reflecting on her life while engaging with the immediacy of her current reality. By using motifs and oral traditions, Silko explores the continuity and transformation of Native American culture from one generation to the next.

Nonlinear Narrative Structure

The story of "Lullaby" unfolds through a third-person restricted point of view, where the narrator, though not part of the story, offers insight into Ayah's inner world. This narrative style allows readers to experience the ebb and flow of Ayah's memory as it intertwines with the present. As an elderly woman, Ayah reminisces about crucial moments from her past, creating a tapestry that spans her life from childhood to old age. The non-chronological sequence of events reflects her mental processes, offering a portrait of a mind that moves fluidly across time rather than adhering to a strict timeline.

Oral Tradition and Cultural Continuity

Silko's commitment to the oral tradition is evident in the way she weaves traditional storytelling elements into "Lullaby." At the story's poignant conclusion, Ayah sings a lullaby taught by her grandmother as her husband Chato nears death, lying in the snow. This act signifies the transmission of cultural heritage, demonstrating how oral traditions can serve as a bridge between generations. Silko emphasizes the importance of these cultural practices, highlighting their role in preserving identity and continuity within Native American communities.

The Blanket Motif

A critical motif within "Lullaby" is the blanket, which serves as a symbol of Ayah's connections to her family and cultural past. It evokes memories of her grandmother's teachings and her son Jimmie, encapsulating the cycle of life and death. The blanket also represents Ayah's personal history, recalling times when her mother wove on a loom while her grandmother spun yarn from raw wool. This handwoven artifact parallels Ayah's storytelling, showcasing how traditional crafts and narratives are interlaced in the maintenance of cultural heritage.

As the story concludes, the blanket gains further significance when Ayah wraps it around Chato, offering warmth and comfort in his final moments. This act underscores Silko's exploration of blending traditional elements with contemporary experiences, suggesting that cultural symbols like the blanket can provide solace and meaning amid life's transitions. Through this motif, "Lullaby" contemplates the ways Native Americans navigate their cultural identity in a changing world.

Integration of Cultural Symbols and Themes

In "Lullaby," Silko skillfully integrates motifs and themes to create a narrative that is both deeply personal and universally resonant. The story exemplifies how traditional practices and symbols can coexist with modern realities, offering a nuanced perspective on cultural adaptation. By intertwining memory, tradition, and the present moment, "Lullaby" becomes a powerful meditation on the enduring nature of cultural identity and its evolution through time.

1970s: Silko's novel Ceremony (1977) marked the first publication of a novel by a Native American woman.

1990s: The decade saw several Native American women novelists gain recognition, including Paula Gunn Allen, who published her debut novel The Woman Who Owned the Shadows in 1983, and Louise Erdrich, whose first novel Love Medicine came out in 1984.

1970s: The Native American rights movement, which began formally in 1968 with the establishment of the American Indian Movement (AIM), was still in its formative years. Native Americans were focused on issues such as reclaiming lands taken by the U.S. government, recovering cultural artifacts and human remains seized by white anthropologists and collectors, and securing the right to practice spiritual traditions on sacred lands, among other concerns.

1990s: Despite AIM disbanding in the early 1980s, Native Americans in North America have achieved some success in their civil rights efforts.

1970s: Until 1978, the U.S. government made minimal efforts to protect the freedom of Native American tribes to practice their traditional religious ceremonies.

1990s: Several federal laws aimed at safeguarding and preserving Native American cultures were enacted, including the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990.

1970s: There had never been a major motion picture written and directed solely by Native Americans, nor one featuring Native Americans in all significant roles.

1990s: In 1998, Smoke Signals, adapted by Sherman Alexie from his own collection of short stories, became the first major motion picture written and directed by Native Americans, featuring an almost entirely Native American cast.

• Running on the Edge of the Rainbow: Laguna Stories & Poems (1978) - Videorecording where Leslie Silko shares stories and poems, discussing the role of storytelling in Laguna culture. Directed by Denny Carr in cooperation with the University of Arizona, Radio-TV-Film Bureau.
• Native American Novelists (1995) - Videorecording of interviews with Native American novelists including Leslie Silko, N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, and Gerald Robert Vizenor. Directed by Matteo Bellinelli and written by Andrea Belloni.

• Krumholz, Linda. ‘‘Native Designs: Silko's Storyteller and the Reader's Initiation,’’ in Leslie Marmon Silko: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Louise Bernett and James Thorsen, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999, pp. 63-86.
• Krumholz, Linda. ‘‘'To Understand this World Differently': Reading and Subversion in Leslie Marmon Silko's Storyteller,'' Ariel, Vol. 25, No. 1, January, 1994, pp. 89-113.
• Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth. On Death and Dying, New York: MacMillan, 1969.
• ‘‘Mesa Verde National Park,’’ Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, Checked 3/22/00.
• ‘‘New Mexico,’’ in Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, Checked 3/22/00.
• ‘‘North American Indian Languages,’’ Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, Checked 3/22/00.
• Silko, Leslie Marmon. ‘‘Language and Literature from a Pueblo Indian Perspective,’’ Beauty, Vol. 50.
• Swann, Brian. Introduction, Smoothing the Ground: Essays on Native American Oral Literature, edited by Brain Swann, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, pp. xi-xix.
• Wiget, Andrew. ‘‘Identity, Voice, and Authority: Artist-Audience Relations in Native American Literature,’’ in World Literature Today, Vol. 66, No. 2, Spring, 1992, pp. 258-263.
• Brown, Wesley, and Amy Ling, eds. Imagining America: Stories from the Promised Land, New York: Persea Books, 1991. A collection of short stories by immigrant and minority authors that present alternative visions of America. Includes ‘‘American Horse,’’ by Leslie Marmon Silko.
• Coltelli, Laura, ed. Winged Words, American Indian Writers Speak, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Books, 1990. A collection of interviews with contemporary Native American writers, including Leslie Marmon Silko. This book is part of a series entitled American Indian Lives.
• Gattuso, John, ed. A Circle of Nations: Voices and Visions of American Indians / North American Native Writers & Photographers, Hillsboro, OR: Beyond Words Publishers, 1993. A collection of Native American literature and photography. Includes a foreword by Leslie Marmon Silko.
• Jaskoski, Helen. Leslie Marmon Silko: A Study of the Short Fiction, New York: Twayne Publishers, 1998. Critical essays that focus on Silko's short stories in terms of her representations of gender and the Southwest in the context of twentieth-century Native American history.
• Nelson, Robert M. Place and Vision: The Function of Landscape in Native American Fiction, New York: Peter Lang, 1993. Discusses the works of N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, and Leslie Marmon Silko in terms of their representations of landscape. Covers Silko's novel Ceremony.
• Ortiz, Simon J., ed. Speaking for the Generations: Native Writers on Writing, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998. A collection of essays by Native American writers on Native American identity and the writing process. Includes a chapter by Leslie Marmon Silko entitled, ‘‘Interior and Exterior Landscapes: The Pueblo Migration Stories.’’
• Roalf, ed. Strong Hearts: Native American Visions and Voices, New York, NY: Aperture, 1995. Described on the book jacket cover as ‘‘the first comprehensive collection of contemporary Native American photography.’’ Includes a photographic essay by Leslie Marmon Silko entitled "An Essay on Rocks.’’
• Salyer, Gregory. Leslie Marmon Silko, New York: Twayne, 1997. Includes biographical information on Leslie Marmon Silko, as well as critical essays on each of her major works.
• Trafzer, Clifford E., ed. Earth Song, Sky Spirit: Short Stories of the Contemporary Native American Experience, New York: Doubleday, 1993. A collection of short stories by Native American writers that focus on the contemporary experience of Native Americans. Includes "The Return of the Buffalo,’’ by Leslie Marmon Silko.
• Velie, Alan, R., ed. The Lightning Within: An Anthology of Contemporary American Indian Fiction, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. A collection of contemporary Native American short stories. Includes "The Man to Send Rain Clouds,'' by Leslie Marmon Silko.
• Barnes, Kim. Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko. The Journal of Ethnic Studies (winter 1986): 83-105. Topics Silko discusses include storytelling, the Native American oral tradition, and women's roles in Native American culture.
• Danielson, Linda. "The Storytellers in Storyteller." Studies in American Indian Literatures (fall 1989): 21-31. Explores the narrative structure of Storyteller, with a particular focus on the character of Yellow Woman.
• Hirsch, Bernard A. "The Telling Which Continues': Oral Tradition and the Written Word in Leslie Marmon Silko's Storyteller." American Indian Quarterly (winter 1988): 1-28. Offers an analysis of the ways in which Silko incorporates elements of the oral storytelling tradition into her written narratives.
• Machann, Clinton. "Leslie Marmon Silko: Overview." In Contemporary Novelists, 6th Edition. Edited by Susan Windisch Brown. Detroit: St. James Press, 1996. Provides descriptions and brief discussions of many of Silko's works.
• Ruppert, Jim. "Story Telling: The Fiction of Leslie Silko." The Journal of Ethnic Studies (spring 1981): 53-58. Considers Silko's technique of integrating aspects of myth into the realistic worlds she presents in her fiction.