Places Discussed
Tenement basement
Tenement basement. Cellarlike rooming house accommodating a varied group of inhabitants, located in an unspecified Russian town along the Volga River. Representative of the kind of living conditions for a large percentage of Russia’s population in the early twentieth century, the setting of the play is a further statement in protest against inequalities.
The play’s stage set represented a combination of elements actually present in slum apartments, of which there were many. Russia was not a nation of great wealth, natural resources, or manufacturing, and its short growing season further increased its poverty. Many citizens considered themselves fortunate to find shelter even in such conditions as those depicted in the play’s damp, dim, sooty, cavernlike communal living area. Privacy, such as it was, occurred only when residents hung blankets or curtains to form cubicles. The setting reminds the audience of a den or a lair where harried and exhausted animals hole up to regain their strength. The setting has the impact of a purgatory in which the denizens wait, caught between life and death, for whatever happens next. At the same time, the residents must pay dearly for their shelter, so that nearly every penny that they make must go to pay their greedy landlords, leaving little money for anything else.
Historical Context
Last Updated October 1, 2024.
The era during which Gorki lived and penned The Lower Depths marked the end of a prolonged period of repression and turmoil in Russia. During this time, the czardom increasingly evolved into an autocratic regime that ruled through force. In 1861, Alexander II issued the Edict of Emancipation, which liberated peasants from serfdom. This emancipation was somewhat analogous to the soon-to-be-realized freedom of black slaves in the American South: both groups were freed with minimal or no support to ease their economic transition. Although peasants were no longer bound as property, their newfound freedom was severely restricted. In fact, they had access to even less farmland than before Emancipation. This so-called freedom brought harsh economic challenges, prompting many peasants to migrate to cities and industrial centers in search of work. Gorki's experience as a wandering youth mirrors the plight of many newly displaced individuals seeking employment.
The emancipation effectively paved the way for Russia's industrialization, leading to remarkable factory growth. Peasants, now in unfamiliar urban settings, were naturally exploited. The working conditions in factories around the turn of the century were far worse than those exposed in the well-known investigations of English factories. These conditions included child labor, excessively long workdays, and unsafe, unsanitary environments. The sudden surge in urban populations overwhelmed cities, which struggled to provide adequate housing. Repeated crop failures culminated in a severe famine in 1891. Poverty, already widespread before Emancipation, was exacerbated by a severe trade depression in 1880, which resulted in the dismissal of thousands of workers. Between 1880 and the early 1900s, unemployment became a significant issue, creating a community of drifters like those depicted in The Lower Depths.
In Maxim Gorky The Writer, An Interpretation, F. M. Borras notes that "Klesctch of all Kostylev’s [Kostilioff’s] lodgers most richly deserves compassion, because he does not dream of escape from the depths through a miracle, but plans to achieve it by means of hard work and yields only when he realizes that this most reasonable of all purposes, because of social conditions, cannot be fulfilled.” During the industrial recession years of 1899-1903, men like Kleshtch, who were eager to work but unable to find employment, would resonate deeply with the audience.
Though Gorki was a writer and intellectual, not a member of the working class deeply affected...
(This entire section contains 644 words.)
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by Russia's social conditions, he felt a profound empathy for their struggles, having experienced life as a drifter in his youth. His use of socialist realism inThe Lower Depths aims to depict the harsh living conditions and the pervasive unrest in the country at that time. The characters' fantasies of escape, like Pepel's dream of starting a new life with Natasha, mirror the widespread utopian aspirations in Russia, especially among the working class influenced by Marxist ideas. The contrast between Luka's utopian visions and Sahtin's harsh truths and advocacy for self-reliance illustrates Gorki’s perspective on the forces shaping Russia. His didactic tone in the speeches of Luka and Sahtin, while typical of his style, underscores his commitment to social reform. Around the same period, Tolstoy, another renowned Russian author, adopted a similar propagandistic tone in his writings.
The Lower Depths was produced just over two years before the Russian Revolution of 1905. This revolution was marked by strikes, assassinations, and peasant uprisings against the corrupt czarist government, though it resulted in minimal reform. However, World War I led to severe food shortages and widespread civilian suffering, creating a new revolutionary climate by the end of 1916. Lenin and Trotsky spearheaded the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, which brought about radical changes such as the abolition of private property and the introduction of workers' control in factories. This was followed by the Russian Civil War between the Bolsheviks (Reds) and anti-Bolsheviks (Whites) from 1918 to 1920. Although the Bolsheviks emerged victorious, the country was left in ruins, and the subsequent Soviet regime continued Russia's history of repression and suffering.
Literary Style
Last Updated October 1, 2024.
Realism
As a realistic play, the characters, plot, and setting are essential elements
of The Lower Depths. Socialist realism involves a lifelike portrayal of
characters' actions and dialogue to convey a political message. In The Lower
Depths, characters speak and act in fragmented, realistic ways, avoiding
romanticized portrayals that aim to evoke emotional responses. Instead, their
various words and actions, however unattractive, are designed to be authentic
and to inspire a desire for change or revolution. For instance, when Nastiah
laments feeling superfluous and Bubnoff agrees that everyone feels superfluous,
the audience is instinctively led to believe that a world should exist where
people do not feel redundant.
Setting
The setting in The Lower Depths is minimal, as are the stage directions.
Acts I, II, and IV take place in a dark, cavernous space with sparse furniture,
such as a few bunks and benches, resembling a prison or a pit. Act III's set is
a bleak vacant lot, filled with piles of rubbish and a wall that obscures the
sky. The lack of color and the stage directions indicating characters dressed
in rags emphasize the impoverished conditions of the lodgers, evoking feelings
of desolation and despair. These settings generate in the audience a sense of
the inhumane conditions that demand change.
Point of View
Throughout The Lower Depths, the audience forms opinions about key
characters, particularly Luka, through the perspectives of other characters.
Each time Luka offers comfort or tells a story, another character engages with
or criticizes him, especially in Act IV, where there is an in-depth discussion
analyzing him. This approach provides the audience with multiple
interpretations of this provocative character, allowing them to develop their
own views on the central moral question. This structure prevents strong
emotional attachment to any one character, fostering a more balanced political
assessment.
Monologue
Monologues serve a similar purpose in the play. The most significant monologues
are delivered by Sahtin in Act IV to express his views on the importance of
truth. This technique highlights the subject matter by making it stand out from
the rest of the dialogue. In this instance, Sahtin responds to discussions
about Luka's ethics, positioning himself as Luka's moral counterpoint. These
monologues break from the realistic structure of the play, as people typically
do not speak in such lengthy segments in conversation. Here, the author's moral
agenda takes precedence over realism.
Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing involves using symbols, dialogue, or events to hint at future
occurrences in the play. In The Lower Depths, significant events are
hinted at before they happen. For instance, in Act II, Pepel and Kostilioff
have a heated argument. As the tension escalates, Luka intervenes to prevent
Pepel from hitting Kostilioff and getting into trouble, foreshadowing Pepel's
eventual strike in Act III that accidentally kills Kostilioff. Additionally,
earlier in Act II, Luka shares a tale about a man who, upon discovering the
nonexistence of a land of justice, ends his own life. Later, in Act IV, the
Actor declares that he will soon be gone and says, ‘‘‘this hole here . . . it
shall be my grave. . .’’’ Shortly after, he fulfills this statement by
committing suicide, mirroring the disillusioned man in Luka’s story.
Symbols
Gorki uses a few physical props as symbols in The Lower Depths, each
laden with significance. The lower depths themselves symbolize the dire
conditions of the lodgers, evoking imagery of a grave, a prison, and hell. The
bunks and sparse furnishings further reinforce the sense of imprisonment or
damnation. One prominent item in the otherwise bleak setting is an old Russian
stove, around which the characters gather for warmth, much like they find
comfort in reminiscing about their pasts. The stove symbolizes a connection to
the romanticized Russia of bygone days. Beyond physical objects, the human
characters also serve as symbols. Luka and Sahtin represent their respective
philosophies, which some critics suggest reflect the author's own conflicting
beliefs. The absurd, flamboyant Baron symbolizes the aristocracy, just as
Medviedeff’s foolishness satirizes law enforcement. Kostilioff represents those
who wield power over others, while the Actor embodies the role of a fool. Each
character symbolizes facets of Russian society and the moral lessons they
advocate.
Compare and Contrast
Last Updated October 1, 2024.
1861: Alexander II frees the serfs from the control of the landed nobility. However, upon their release, they are given less land than they previously held, forcing many into the corrupt factory system and an even harsher quality of life.
Today: There are virtually no remnants of the old class system of peasantry and nobility.
Mid-1860s: The emancipation of the serfs sparks industrialization and the early stages of capitalism in Russia. This movement is suppressed by the Bolshevik Revolution, after which workers take control of factory management.
Today: Since the end of the Cold War in 1989, Russia has been transitioning towards capitalism. Although some conditions have improved, the Westernization of the former Soviet Union has recently caused significant economic issues.
1917: The Romanoff family, the czarist heirs of the Russian Empire, along with many other state leaders, are executed as the Bolsheviks seize power. Today: Boris Yeltsin steps down from power with diplomatic immunity.
1917: Milyukov, the first foreign minister under the new government after the Bolshevik Revolution, is forced to resign due to his insistence on continuing the war effort.
Today: Yeltsin faces pressure to resign and is succeeded by Vladimir Putin, a former unknown figure, who rises to leadership due to his strong support for the war in Chechnya.
Media Adaptations
Last Updated October 1, 2024.
The Lower Depths was adapted into a Chinese film titled Ye’dian or Night Lodging in 1948. The stage version premiered in 1946. Both the stage and film adaptations were banned in China during the Cultural Revolution.
In 1957, Akira Kurosawa directed a Japanese film adaptation of The Lower Depths (translated as Donzoko), featuring Toshiro Mifune in the lead role.
In 1936, Jean Renoir directed a French film adaptation of The Lower Depths titled Les Bas or The Underworld. At the time of its production, the French social atmosphere mirrored pre-Revolutionary Russia with its utopian aspirations.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Last Updated October 1, 2024.
Sources
Bassett, Kate. "The Arts: Modern Depths Hit Heights," in The Daily
Telegraph, August 26, 1999.
Borras, F. M. Maxim Gorky the Writer: An Interpretation, Oxford University Press, 1967.
Clarkson, Jesse D. A History of Russia, Random House, 1961, p. 364.
Gorki, Maxim. The Lower Depths, Branden Publishing Company, 1906, pp. 7-108.
On Literature, University of Washington Press, 1973, pp. 16, 22, 363.
Jones, Sumie. "Gorki, Stanislavski, Kurosawa: Cinematic Translations of The Lower Depths," in Explorations: Essays in Comparative Literature, University Press of America, 1986, p. 189.
Longenbaugh, John. "Diving the Depths," in Seattle Weekly, November 19-25, 1998.
Scherr, Barry P. "Gorky The Dramatist: A Reevaluation," in 50 Years On: Gorky and His Time, Astra Press, 1987, pp. 40-41.
Zamyatin, E. I. A Soviet Heretic, University of Chicago Press, 1970.
Further Reading
Borras, F. M. Maxim Gorky the Writer: An Interpretation, Oxford
University Press, 1967, pp. 167-177. Borras provides a detailed discussion of
much of Gorki's work, especially The Lower Depths.
Becker, George J. Realism In Modern Literature, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1980, pp. 151-162. This book offers an analysis of Gorki's work and places it within the context of his life, along with substantial information on realism.
Levin, Dan. Stormy Petrel: The Life and Work of Maxim Gorky, Appleton-Century, 1965, pp. 88-95. Levin's book provides both an analysis of Gorki’s work and a contextualization of his life.
Hare, Richard. Maxim Gorky: Romantic Realist and Conservative Revolutionary, Greenwood Press, 1962, pp. 56-61. Hare explores Gorki’s work within the context of his life, focusing on the influences of Romanticism and Realism on his writing.
Bibliography
Borras, F. M. Maxim Gorky the Writer: An Interpretation. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1967. One of the more astute interpretations of Gorky’s works, especially of his novels and plays, including The Lower Depths. Borras emphasizes Gorky’s artistic achievements rather than focusing on biographical or political issues.
Hare, Richard. Maxim Gorky: Romantic Realist and Conservative Revolutionary. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. The first substantial study of Gorky in English since Alexander Kaun’s 1932 book. Hare combines the political aspects of Gorky’s biography with critical analysis of his works. Includes an analysis of The Lower Depths (pp. 56-61).
Kaun, Alexander. Maxim Gorky and His Russia. New York: Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith, 1931. This first book on Gorky in English is supported by firsthand knowledge of the writer. Covers literary and nonliterary aspects of Russia’s literary life and of the atmosphere in Gorky’s time.
Levin, Dan. Stormy Petrel: The Life and Work of Maxim Gorky. East Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965. A general source that covers his entire life, thus completing Kaun’s study. Levin discusses The Lower Depths on pages 86-95.
Muchnic, Helen. “Circe’s Swine: Plays by Gorky and O’Neill.” Russian Writers: Notes and Essays. New York: Random House, 1971. A comparative study of Gorky’s The Lower Depths and O’Neill’s The Iceman Cometh, with some keen insights.
Weil, Irwin. Gorky: His Literary Development and Influence on Soviet Intellectual Life. New York: Random House, 1966. The most scholarly book on Gorky in English, skillfully combining biography with critical analysis. The Lower Depths is discussed on pages 37-43.